“Whom to blame?” The Culture of Loss Following Crisis: Culture Shifts in the Bereaved Parents‐State Relationship

Abstract

This article delineates three models of public behavior exhibited by parents of fallen soldiers in Israel:

1. the “hegemonic bereavement model” that emerged after the War of Independence (1948);

2. the “political bereavement model” that appeared in the wake of the Yom Kippur War (1973);

3. the “no‐confidence model” that materialized following major accidents and revelations of negligence during the 1990s.

These paradigmatic behaviors emerge in the wake of crisis situations that took a heavy toll in military dead and wounded. The article traces the public initiatives of those bereaved parents who, following their personal tragedy, became social and media activists and formulators of public consciousness. It opens with a review of relevant theoretical literature in the field of culture and state pertaining to cultural codes and the impact of crises on them. The initial model exhibits a conformist code that reproduces state‐sanctioned behavior for representative mourners in national commemorative endeavors. This is followed by two behavioral codes that are essentially counter‐establishment, one directing its critique towards incompetent military implementation and the second charging the formulators of government policy for the tragedies of the fallen. The concluding section presents some generalizations on the topic of time and bereavement in Israel.

Notes

1. See Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, Book II, 45.

2. See the pioneering work of Azaryahu (1996).

3. See for example Milkinson et al. (1993); also Malkinson and Bar‐Tur (2000).

4. For the employment of this methodology in the study of bereaved parents, see Gefen‐Koshilevitch et al. (2004).

5. It should be emphasised that cultural hegemony is more difficult to formulate than political hegemony, as the former relates to all areas of human endeavor. Bourdieu’s concept of habitus crystallises in popular culture, the same custom, cognitive schema and social norms.

6. This is reflected, for example, in the Israeli phrase “by their death they entrusted their lives”. This phrase is meant to convey to parents and families of the fallen that the loss of sons in battle was meaningful. See Lebel (1998).

7. People who experience trauma perceive the world as less secure, have lower self‐esteem, and find less significance in the world. See Janoff‐Bolman (1992).

8. Kornhauser found that political entrepreneurship only develops in classes that suffered trauma or personal crisis such as unemployment, war, bereavement, etc. See Wilkinson (1971).

9. Some claim that this was an adoption of the central idea from Jewish thought whose nature was anti‐liberal. See Leibovitch (1973, p. 31). Others regard the origin of this perception in secular socialist thought which inspired the leaders of the Zionist movement. See Shapira (1975).

10. In the study of the nation‐state, these characteristics are perceived as part of the stage of nation‐building. See Kimmerling (1995, p. 96).

11. 1162 were civilians. For the problematics of the accuracy of the data, see Sivan (1991, pp. 17–26).

12. For the term “political‐security complex” see Lebel (2002).

13. For the role of parents in shaping the political socialisation of their children in regard to their attitude to military service, see: Lebel & Dahan‐Kalev (2005).

14. It should be noted that the variety of behaviors and utterances which are presented to support the above model relate to the expressions of bereaved families in public settings. In Goffman’s terminology, these settings are “front‐stage” and are to be distinguished from possibly different actions and remarks in the more private and socially inclusive “back‐stage” settings. The latter are not dealt with in this article. See Goffman (1959).

15. Words of the Prime Minister, Moshe Sharett to bereaved parents at a gathering at Soldiers’ House, 15 September 1954 in Jerusalem.

16. Editorial column of Ma’ariv on Independence Day 6 May 1973.

17. “The tears”, in Avinoam, p. 29.

18. R. Grossman, “Magnified and Sanctified”, in Words from the Days of Yitzhak, A Year After the Heroic Death of Yitzhak Zamir, Kibbutz Evron.

19. “Your will”, in Avinoam, p. 35.

20. “Reflections on Bereavement”, ibid. p. 49.

21. “I am as proud of my son as you are of yours”, in Avinoam, p. 56.

22. “A Father to his Mighty Son”, Avinoam, p. 67.

23. “Our Heroic Children”, Avinoam, p. 22.

24. “Our Youth”, Avinoam, 18.

25. Miriam Shapira, “The Thing that Works”, 1956, IDF archives.

26. This process, it should be pointed out, was intended to strengthen mourning and the feeling of grief, as well as encourage the release of guilt feelings. This discharge of emotions enabled parents to regard their sons as sacrificial material. But under no circumstances were these guilt feelings to be given public expression.

27. See the letter of David Ben‐Gurion to bereaved parents, read by the lawyer Mordechai Bardolach on 15 September 1954 at a gathering of the Yad Labanim Association.

28. “Fathers and Sons”, in Avinoam, pp. 13–14.

29. “During the Seven Days of Mourning”, Avinoam, p. 38.

30. See correspondence between members of the Yad Labanim Organization and the Defence Ministry, IDF Archives 540/55 – 14.

31. Section headings from the program of the bereaved parents’ association, Yad Labanim Project, written between May 1948 and March 1949, IDF Archives 553/50 – 181, n.d.

32. See the letter from the Department for Soldier Commemoration to the Interior Ministry, 13 April 1953.

33. A letter of reply, Minister of the Interior to the Department for Soldier Commemoration, 14 April 1953.

34. Knesset Proceedings, 25 March 1963.

35. On the notion of “symbolic type” see Grathoff 1970; Hendekman 1991. For use of the concept in the Israeli context, see Roniger & Feige, p. 126.

36. Letter of the head of Manpower, General Moshe Tzadok, Chief of Staff/Manpower Branch, 20 August 1949.

37. Among the erroneous assumptions held by the political and military leadership: reliance upon a static line of defence at the Suez Canal known as the Bar Lev line after its military promoter; the change in military tactics from an activist to a defensive posture was based on the assumption that the Egyptians would not go to war until they had re‐armed and that Syria would not engage in all‐out hostilities without the accompaniment of the Egyptians. Israel felt confident in its newly won strategic depth with its enemies on all fronts and after the Six Day War made light of Arab fighting capabilities. See Carmel (2001, p. 677).

38. R. Rosenthal, p. 18.

39. Ha’aretz, 4 October 1974.

40. M. Boorstein, “For the sake of our recollection”, ibid., p. 75.

41. Orna, widow from Kibbutz Mizra, who lost her husband in the Six Day War: B. Zilca, “The Day in which We Learned at Mizra to say kadish [the mourner’s prayer – ed.]”, Ma’ariv, 8 November 2003.

42. Yediot Aharonot, 22 October 1974.

43. Ma’ariv, 7 April 1975.

44. Ma’ariv, 25 April 1975.

45. Ma’ariv, 20 December 1974.

46. Ma’ariv, 22 December 1975.

47. Ma’ariv, 28 March 1975.

48. Announcement published in Ma’ariv, 8 April 1975.

49. Ma’ariv, 27 February 1975.

50. State research institutions also found that “the process of recovery of [bereaved] parents from the October War was slower than previous wars”. See Friedlander (1974).

51. See Lebel (2005).

52. For the principal intention in maintaining censorship options as it related to army/media relations, Lebel (forthcoming).

53. I am referring to developments which were termed “revolutionary”, namely the media revolution [end of the period of government monopoly over media policy]; the legal revolution [the emergence of liberal and individualistic values and its readiness to contest the political arena over the allocation of cultural values]; consumer revolution [in which the Israeli citizen became a “client” and began to make increasing demands from the state on all matters concerned with personal rights].

54. On the support of the military arena’s agenda by the various public arenas and the desdired imagery granted to it see Drory (2000).

55. For a detailed account of accidents and military failures during the 1990s see Lebel (1998); Lebel & Dahan‐Kalev (2005).

56. Words of Eli ben Shem to Alon Ben‐David, “Mabat Evening News” Israel Television I, 5 September 1997.

57. See, for example, Ben Gurion, Knesset, 3 Kislev, 1957.

58. Yale German, who founded “Amihai”, a body composed of bereaved parents whose sons fell in training accidents. “Amihai” worked in concert with the army, avoided going to the media, and through its own initiative even emerged the security policy of the IDF to the extent that it led to the training of security officers who were deployed in combat units. With the appointment of Ehud Barak to Chief‐of‐Staff, this policy was cancelled and the situation returned to its previous state. In the words of one mother justifying the relatively passive stance: “How could I be angry with our army, with the commanders that Eyal loved”. Quoted from Sima Kadmon, Ma’ariv, 27 November 1992.

59. This incident also contained political significance and symbols that filtered through other initiatives similar to that undertaken by Malet.

60. Ma’ariv, 11 November 1994.

61. Lea Tsuriano’s son was killed in the “cable tragedy” described above.

62. Undated letter, given to me by Lea Tsuriano from Afula. The letter appears to have been sent to the military newspapers in 1995 explaining the aims of the activities of the bereaved parents.

63. The Vinograd Report for the Study of the “Cable Tragedy”, p. 122.

64. The most known were the “net roulette” and the “cable accident”.

65. Petition to the Supreme Court sitting as the High Court of Justice, no. 4537/96, Massoud and Aliza Sasson vs. the Head of the General Staff and others.

66. An investigation of the event revealed that the explosion was the result of failure to follow safety instructions. Commanders of the company, regiment and the infantry to which the soldiers belonged were not even aware of the existence of these safety measures.

67. A written indictment against Horev and other commanders was issued on 14 May 1996 for the crime of causing death by negligence (violation of clause 304 of the Criminal Law, 1977).

68. Interview with Leah Tsuriano, Afula, April 1997.

69. Hegemonic practice through traditional remembrance included the erection of memorials to the fallen, contribution of an ambulance to the Magen David [Red Cross] Association with names of the fallen written on the vehicle, contributions to public gardens in the name of the fallen, and the like.

70. Forum of Brigade, Battalion and Pilots in the Reserves, established 20 July 1995, is an organization of senior officers in the reserves that was crystallized to defence and support what they identified as a crisis in the standing of the army and its senior command in Israeli society. In effect, the initial motive for its establishment was the readiness of the Legal Counselor for the Government (Michael Ben Yair) to reply to the demands of bereaved parents and to act to bring an officer of the standing army to justice (first lieutenant Yeshua Shadiel from the Paratroops) who was responsible for the death of their sons who was killed by friendly fire from his company during operations in southern Lebanon. (First Staff Serjeant Haim Bar Natan).

71. Interview with Arye Niger, Tel Aviv, 10 February 1998.

72. GHQ did not hide its public sympathy for this initiative. The Forum included generals in active service and almost all the battalion commanders in the IDF. Their activities received support from the President of the State, Ezer Weizmann, who was also a general in the reserves, the Prime Minister, the Defence Minister, the Chief of Staff and head of army manpower. There was also support from many members of the Knesset’s Foreign Affairs and Security Committee. Alkl concurred in the claim that the behaviour of the bereaved parents threatens their preferred social standing. At one of the meetings of the Forum, Ilan Biran, a reserve general and director‐general of the Defence Ministry, asked from the organizers what seemed to him to be the central goal of the Forum: “If you manage to organize for me two to three color articles?? In the magazine section of the weekend newspaper in our spirit against the articles that the bereaved parents have written, you have done your work”. Interview with Arye Niger, Tel Aviv, 10 April 1998.

73. An incident in which soldiers of the “cruiser” were ambushed by the Hizballa in south Lebanon. Six soldiers were killed. Many failures were uncovered. The central ones, hinted at by the newspapers and stated by senior sources in the army, the discovery of the force the night before when it set out on its mission, a fact that did not prevent army leaders from having the force continue on with its mission and in addition the prior theft of personal computers from Navy Intelligence which contained future planned activities including this particular mission. The cover‐up of the theft, it was suggested, did not lead to a change in the operational agenda of the force.

74. Details and sections from the letter exchange may be found in I Marcus “Yes Mr. Elitzur, to them it is permitted”, Ha’aretz 25 August 1998.

75. A bereaved father whose son died in the helicopter collision. Quoted from Kossilevitz et al. (2004).