![Sample our Politics & International Relations journals, sign in here to start your FREE access for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5947/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Politics-International-Relations.jpg"})
Abstract
Consonant with global trends, China's defense diplomacy has broadened in the pursuit of new foreign policy and security goals. While realpolitik still informs China's military relations with Southeast Asian countries, Beijing has also utilized defense diplomacy to build cooperative relations, underscore its “peaceful development” thesis, increase transparency, and assuage regional anxieties concerning its rising power. Over the past decade, China has stepped up arms sales to the region, military exchanges and naval ship visits, initiated annual defense and security dialogues, and combined training and exercises. However, China's defense diplomacy in Southeast Asia still faces barriers, including tensions generated by sovereignty disputes in the South China Sea, the poor reputation of Chinese weapon systems, and second-order impacts on Southeast Asian countries' existing defense relationships.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments.
Notes
1. Andrew Cottey and Anthony Forster, Reshaping Defense Diplomacy: New Roles for Military Cooperation and Assistance, Adelphi Paper No. 365 (Oxford: Oxford University Press for the International Institute of Strategic Studies, 2004), pp. 7, 15.
2. A combined exercise is conducted by the armed forces of two or more countries. A joint exercise involves two or more services (i.e., army, navy, or air force).
3. See the Defense Security Cooperation Agency Web site at http://www.dsca.mil/PressReleases/faq.htm
4. Cottey and Forster, Reshaping Defense Diplomacy, p. 6.
5. Cited in K. A. Muthanna, “Military Diplomacy,” Journal of Defense Studies Vol. 5, No. 1 (January 2011), p. 2.
6. Nicholas Floyd, Dropping the Autopilot: Improving Australia's Defense Diplomacy, Policy Brief (Sydney: The Lowy Institute for International Policy, November 2010), p. 3.
7. For more details on NATO's PfP Program, see http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_50349.htm
8. Ministry of Defence, Defence Diplomacy, Policy Paper No. 1 (London: Ministry of Defense, December 2000); Cottey and Forster, Reshaping Defense Diplomacy, p. 8.
9. Ministry of Defence, Defence Diplomacy.
10. Muthanna, “Military Diplomacy,” p. 3.
11. China's Defense in 2000 (Beijing: Information Office of the State Council, 2000); China's Defense in 2004 (Beijing: Information Office of the State Council, 2004).
12. See Ch. 1, 4, 7, and 8 in Ian Storey, Southeast Asia and the Rise of China: The Search for Security (Abingdon, Oxon, UK: Routledge, 2011).
13. Storey, Southeast Asia and the Rise of China, pp. 178–179.
14. Storey, Southeast Asia and the Rise of China, p. 130.
15. “Navy Orders Six Frigates from China,” Far Eastern Economic Review, November 21, 1989.
16. Michael A. Glosny, “Heading towards a Win–Win Future? Recent Developments in China's Policy toward Southeast Asia,” Asian Security Vol. 2, No. 1 (2006), p. 39.
17. “Joint Declaration of ASEAN and China on Cooperation in the Field of Nontraditional Security Issues,” paper presented at the 6th ASEAN Summit, Phnom Penh, November 4, 2002. Available at http://www.aseansec.org/13186.htm
18. “Joint Declaration of the Heads of State/Government of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and the People's Republic of China on Strategic Partnership for Peace and Prosperity.” Available at http://www.aseansec.org/15266.htm
19. “Plan of Action to Implement the Joint Declaration on ASEAN–China Strategic Partnership for Peace and Prosperity.” Available at http://www.aseansec.org/16806.htm
20. “Defense Departments of China, ASEAN Hold First Workshop on Regional Security,” Xinhua, July 18, 2006.
21. “China, ASEAN Scholars Discuss Military Building,” Xinhua, March 12, 2008.
22. “Joint Declaration of the ASEAN Defence Ministers on Strengthening ASEAN Defence Cooperation for Stability and Development of the Region,” May 11, 2010. Available at http://www.mindef.gov.sg/content/imindef/news_and_events/nr/2010/may/11may10_nr/11may10_fs.print.html?Status=1
23. “Joint Declaration of the ASEAN Defence Ministers on Strengthening ASEAN Defence Cooperation.”
24. See Andrew Selth, “Even Paranoids Have Enemies: Cyclone Nargis and Myanmar's Fears of Invasion,” Contemporary Southeast Asia Vol. 30, No. 3 (December 2008), pp. 379–402.
25. Andrew Selth, Burma's Armed Forces: Power without Glory (Norwalk, CT: EastBridge, 2002), p. 137.
26. See the SIPRI Arms Transfer Database, available at http://armstrade.sipri.org/arms_trade/values.php
27. Andrew Selth, “Burma and Superpower Rivalries in the Asia-Pacific,” Naval War College Review Vol. LV, No. 2 (Spring 2002), p. 56.
28. Personal interview with US diplomats, Phnom Penh, August 2004.
29. US diplomats, personal interview.
30. Zeng Bijian, “China's ‘Peaceful Rise’ to Great Power Status,” Foreign Affairs Vol. 84, No. 5 (September/October 2005), pp. 18–24.
31. “Build Towards a Harmonious World of Lasting Peace and Prosperity,” speech delivered by President Hu Jintao at the United Nations 60th Session, September 15, 2005. Available at http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjdt/zyjh/t213091.html
32. China's National Defense in 2008 (Beijing: Information Office of the State Council, 2009), p. 72.
33. China's National Defense in 2008, p. 5.
34. International Crisis Group, China's Growing Role in UN Peacekeeping, Asia Report No. 166 (April 17, 2009).
35. International Crisis Group, China's Growing Role in UN Peacekeeping.
36. “Text of Sino–Thai Joint Statement,” Xinhua, February 5, 1999.
37. “China, Malaysia Sign Joint Statement,” People's Daily, May 31, 1999. Available at http://www.people.com.cn/english/199906/01/enc_990601001033_HomeNews.html
38. “Joint Communiqué between the People's Republic of China and Brunei Darussalam.” Available at http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjdt/2649/t15796.htm
39. “Joint Press Communiqué of the People's Republic of China and the Republic of Indonesia.” Available at http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjdt/2649/t15794.html
40. “China, Singapore Issue Joint Statement on Bilateral Cooperation,” People's Daily, April 13, 2000. Available at http://english.people.com.cn/english/200004/11/eng20000411_38706.html
41. “Joint Statement between China and the Philippines on the Framework of Bilateral Cooperation in the Twenty-First Century.” Available at http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/ceph/eng/zfgx/zzgx/t183269.html
42. “Joint Statement of People's Republic of China and Lao People's Democratic Republic on Bilateral Cooperation,” Xinhua, November 12, 2000; “Joint Statement by the People's Republic of China and the Kingdom of Cambodia on the Framework of Their Bilateral Cooperation.” Available at http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjdt/2649/t15776.html
43. “Joint Action Plan on Thailand–China Strategic Cooperation between the Government of the Kingdom of Thailand and the Government of the People's Republic of China,” May 28, 2007. Author copy.
44. “Full Text of Chinese–Indonesian Joint Declaration on Strategic Partnership,” Foreign Broadcast Information Service, April 26, 2005.
45. Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD), Military and Security Developments Involving the PRC 2011 (Washington, DC: US DoD, 2011), p. 65.
46. “PLA Deputy Chief Xiong Guangkai Holds Security Meeting with Thai Counterpart,” Xinhua, December 2, 2001.
47. “Appendix III: Participation in Security Consultations (2005–2006),”China's National Defense in 2006. Available at http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/book/194421.htm; “RP, China Hold First Defense Talks, Agree on Cooperation,” The Philippine Star, May 24, 2005.
48. “Indonesia to Explore Defense Industry Cooperation with China,” Tempo, May 12, 2006; “Permanent Secretary (Defense) Signs Agreement on Defense Exchanges and Security Cooperation in China at Inaugural Defense Policy Dialogue,” MINDEF Press Release, January 7, 2008. Available at http://www.mindef.gov.sg/imindef/news_and_events/nr/2008/jan/07jan08_nr.html
49. “China, Malaysia row to strengthen military cooperation,” Xinhua, September 11, 2012.
50. China's National Defense in 1998 (Beijing: Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, July 1998).
51. China's National Defense in 2008.
52. The author has taught at two military colleges, the Center for Defence and Strategic Studies in Canberra, Australia (2002–04) and the Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies in Honolulu, Hawaii (2004–07).
53. Richard F. Grimmett, Conventional Arms Transfers to Developing Nations, 2003–2010, CRS Report for Congress (September 22, 2011), pp. 24, 26.
54. SIPRI Arms Transfer Database.
55. SIPRI Arms Transfer Database.
56. SIPRI Arms Transfer Database.
57. “Chinese Shipbuilding Company Delivers Marine Equipment to Cambodia,” Xinhua News Agency, November 7, 2007.
58. “Cambodia Says Asian, European Countries Are Flocking to the Country in Search of Oil,” Associated Press, January 16, 2007.
59. Personal interview, PRC Defense Attaché, Dili, East Timor, December 2008.
60. PRC Defense Attaché, personal interview.
61. “Inauguration of F-FDTL Headquarters and New Ministry of Defense Office,” statement issued by the Office of the President, the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, April 4, 2012.
62. “Alarm Grows at China's Influence in East Timor,” The Australian, April 16, 2008.
63. “South Korea Hands Over Decommissioned Patrol Boats to Timor Leste,” Xinhua, September 26, 2011.
64. “China Hands Over Free Equipment to Philippine Military,” People's Daily, January 23, 2006.
65. Noel Tarrazona, “U.S., China Vie for Philippine Military Influence,” Asia Times Online, September 20, 2007.
66. Duncan McCargo, “Thailand: State of Anxiety,” in Daljit Singh and Tin Maung Maung Than, eds., Southeast Asian Affairs 2007 (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2008), p. 351.
67. Kavi Chongkittavorn, “Post-Coup Thailand in the Eyes of the U.S. and China,” The Nation, February 12, 2007.
68. “Cabinet Nod for B7.7 bn to Buy Arms, Equipment,” Bangkok Post, September 26, 2007.
69. Jon Grevatt, “Indonesia Fits Chinese ASM but with an Eye to the West,” Jane's Navy International, April 22, 2008.
70. “Navy Launches 2nd Guided Missile Boat,” Jakarta Post, February 16, 2012.
72. “China Unveils New Patrol Vessel for Thailand,” Jane's Defense Weekly, December 24, 2003.
73. “Ukraine Delivers First Armored Vehicle to Thailand,” Xinhua, September 16, 2010.
74. “Royal Thai Navy seeks second-hand submarines,” Jane's Defense Industries, February 18, 2010.
75. “Defense Brass Raise Scope on Sub Training,” Bangkok Post, April 30, 2012.
76. Personal interview with Western Defense Attaché based in Southeast Asia, May 2012.
77. Personal interview with Abdul Razak Baginda, director, Malaysian Strategic Research Centre, Kuala Lumpur, August 2005.
78. “Malaysia to Buy Chinese Missiles for Technology Transfer,” Channelnewsasia.com, July 20, 2004.
79. “China to Consider Thai-Proposed Nuclear Energy, Road and Rail Links,” Thai News Agency, December 3, 2007.
80. “Top Brass China Visit Secures Joint Missile Deal,” Bangkok Post, April 28, 2012.
81. “Seventy Pct of TNI's Armaments Need Replacing: Spokesman,” Defense News, September 11, 2009.
82. “Full Text of China-Indonesian Joint Declaration on Strategic Partnership.”
83. “RI, China Seal Economic and Defense Deals,” Jakarta Post, July 29, 2005.
84. “Jakarta in Missile Deal with Beijing,” Financial Times, August 1, 2005.
85. “RI, China Complete Draft on Defense Cooperation Agreement,” Antara, April 9, 2007; “China, Indonesia Sign Agreement on Defense Cooperation,” Xinhua, November 7, 2007.
86. “RI, China to Conduct Joint Military Training,” Jakarta Post, January 17, 2008.
87. “Indonesia Strengthens Defense Cooperation with China and Malaysia,” Jane's Defense Industry, January 25, 2010.
88. “RI, China Solidify C-705 Anti-Ship Technology Transfer Mechanism,” Antara, April 10, 2012.
89. Personal interview with Defense Minister Juwono Sudarsono, Jakarta, May 2009.
90. OSD, Military and Security Developments Involving the PRC 2011, p. 66.
91. China's National Defense in 2010 (Beijing: Information Office of the State Council, 2011), p. 19.
92. China's National Defense in 2010.
93. Wilson Chun Hei Chau, “Explaining China's Participation in Bilateral and Multilateral Military Exercises,” Security Challenges Vol. 7, No. 3 (Spring 2011), p 53.
94. Chau, “Explaining China's Participation in Bilateral and Multilateral Military Exercises.”
95. “China Helps Thailand Train Landmine Clearance Personnel,” Xinhua, September 8, 2005.
96. “China Helps Thailand Train Landmine Clearance Personnel.”
97. “First Sino–Thai Joint Naval Exercise Held in Gulf of Thailand,” PLA Daily, December 14, 2005.
98. “China, Thailand Stage Combined Training of Special Troops,” Xinhua, July 16, 2007.
99. “Thai–Chinese Special Forces Launch Anti-Terror Combined Training,” Xinhua, July 11, 2008.
100. “Expert: Sino–Thai Joint Drill Serves to Frighten Terrorist Forces,” People's Daily, October 12, 2010.
101. Robert Karniol, “PLA Focusing on Amphibious Growth,” Straits Times, February 23, 2009.
102. “Thai-US Cobra Gold 2010 to begin Feb 1, ” Bangkok Post, January 9, 2010.
103. “Chinese Amphibious Unit Arrives in Thailand for Joint Drill,” People's Daily, October 27, 2010; “Chinese Train with Thai Forces for First Time,” The Washington Times, October 27, 2010.
104. “China, Thailand Begin Joint Military Training,” China Daily, May 11, 2012.
105. China's National Defense in 2008, p. 74.
106. “China, Singapore Hold Joint Anti-Terror Training Exercises,” Xinhua, June 18, 2009.
107. “SAF, PLA Conclude Anti-Terror Exercises,” Straits Times, November 25, 2010.
108. “16 Navies Hold Joint Exercise,” Straits Times, March 26, 2011.
109. Tim Huxley, Defending the Lion City: The Armed Forces of Singapore (St. Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin, 2000), p. 199.
110. “Alleged Defense Offer to Singapore Worries Taipei,” South China Morning Post, April 23, 2002.
111. “The Lion City Eases Grip on Secretive Taiwan Military Bases,” South China Morning Post, August 26, 2006.
112. “China, Indonesia Launch United Training for Special Forces,” Xinhua, June 7, 2011.
113. “Chinese and Indonesian Special Operations Forces Hold Joint Training,” PLA Daily, July 2, 2012.
114. International Crisis Group, China's Growing Role in UN Peacekeeping.
115. “Appendix IV: China's Participation in UN Peacekeeping Operations,” China's National Defense in 2010.
116. International Crisis Group, China's Growing Role in UN Peacekeeping, p. 9.
117. Yin He, China's Changing Policy in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations, Asia Paper (Stockholm: Institute for Security and Development Policy, July 2007), p. 24.
118. China's National Defense in 2008, pp. 100–101.
119. Bates Gill and Chin-Hao Huang, China's Expanding Peacekeeping Role: Its Significance and Policy Implications, SIPRI Policy Brief (SIPRI, February 2009).
120. Personal e-mail communication with Chin-Hao Huang, Ph.D. candidate in Political Science, University of Southern California, February 21, 2012.
121. China's National Defense in 2010, p. 19.
122. China's National Defense in 2010, p. 19.
123. Leah Averitt, “China's Growing Maritime HA/DR Capabilities,” China Brief Vol. 10, Issue 12 (June 11, 2010).
124. OSD, Military and Security Developments Involving the PRC 2011, p. 67.
125. Carlyle A. Thayer, “China's International Security Cooperation with Southeast Asia,” Australian Defense Force Journal No. 172 (2007); “RSN Frigate Calls at Naval Base in Shanghai,” MINDEF Press Release, August 26, 2008; “Chinese Warships Make First Visit to Burma,” The Irrawaddy, August 30, 2010.
126. Information provided by the US and Japanese defense attachés to Singapore.