Polybrominated diphenyl ethers concentrations in metals and plastics scrap impacted soils: Pollution load, sources, ecological, and onsite human health implications

Abstract

The usage of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) as fire-resistant additives was banned several years ago; however, they persist in several environmental compartments. This study determined the concentrations and associated exposure risks of Ʃ₃₉PBDEs in soil depth samples from selected metals and plastics scrap catchments in the Niger Delta region, Nigeria. Samples extraction was performed by the Soxhlet extraction method followed by GC-MS analysis. The mean concentrations of ∑₃₉PBDEs-congeners ranged from 0.01 ± 001 to 25 ± 11.0 ng g⁻¹ in the topsoil and 0.01 ± 0.01 to 6.50 ± 4.7 ng g⁻¹ in the subsoil. The PBDE homologue profiles were dominated by di, penta, hexa, and tri-BDEs. The PBDEs cancer and non-cancer risk for infants were higher than those in adults, expressed in the following order: ingestion > dermal contact > inhalation. In general, the sum for the three exposure pathways was within the allowable threshold limit, suggesting a low lifetime cancer risk from soil exposures. The technical mixture used for paints, plastics, hydraulic, and dielectric insulating fluids for transformers, capacitors, cable wires, and power capacitors is a potential source of Ʃ₃₉PBDEs in the study area. With the increase in metals scrap enterprise in Nigeria, this study provides empirical data useful for the development of efficient strategies to strengthen and enforce existing regulations for metals and plastics scrap land use in Nigeria and other similar catchments around the world.

Keywords:

• Soil pollution
• PBDEs occurrence
• occupational exposure
• associated risks
• scrap sites

Availability of data and materials

All data generated for this study are included in this article and it’s Supporting Information.

Competing interest

The authors have no conflict of interest, hence none declared.

This study was funded by the authors.

Author’s contributions

All authors contributed to the study's development and completion. Conceptualization and design [Onoriode O. Emoyan]. The collection, preparation, and analysis of samples for the determination of PBDEs [Onoriode O. Emoyan, Godswill O. Tesi, Efe Ohwo, Chijioke Olisah, and Oghoje U. Stephen]. The compilation and statistical analysis of PBDEs results [Godswill O. Tesi, Chijioke Olisah and Onoriode O. Emoyan]. The first draft of the manuscript was written by [Onoriode O. Emoyan, Chijioke Olisah, and Godswill O. Tesi]. All authors commented on all versions of the manuscript, and the review and editing of the final manuscript [Onoriode O. Emoyan]. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to gratefully thank the laboratory personnel, Department of Chemistry, Delta State University, Abraka and Apex Analytics Ltd, Rumuomasi, Port Harcourt, Nigeria, for providing technical and laboratory support.