Between abundance and marginalization: the imperative of racial rhetorical criticism

ABSTRACT

Tracing what has become a profound and robust conversation among rhetorical critics, I argue in this essay that questions of race are of such central importance to rhetorical criticism that rhetorical critics must all now participate in a body of work I name racial rhetorical criticism. To make this argument, I trace three racial rhetorical projects, which I name hearing race, seeing race, and bounding race. I conclude with suggestions for future work: a turn toward comparative racial rhetorical studies, an amplification of historical racial rhetorical studies, and a broad partipation from rhetorical critics in racial rhetorical criticism.

KEYWORDS:

• Race
• rhetoric
• racial rhetorical criticism
• vernacular rhetoric
• politics of representation
• border rhetorics

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank Phaedra C. Pezzullo, Stephanie Hartzell, Darrel Wanzer-Serrano and the Rhetoric Research Lunch group at the University of Colorado for their helpful comments and generousity of time on this project as well as Charles E. Morris III and Jeffrey A. Bennett for their inspiriation in designing this special issue and their guidance as I developed this essay.

Notes

1. Edwin Black, Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978); Karlyn Kohrs Campbell, “Style and Content in the Rhetoric of Early Afro-American Feminists,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 72 (1986): 434–45; Richard J. Jensen and John C. Hammerback, “’No Revolutions without Poets’: The Rhetoric of Rodolfo ‘Corky’ Gonzales,” Western Journal of Communication 46 (1982): 72–91; Martha Solomon, “The Rhetoric of Dehumanization: An Analysis of Medical Reports of the Tuskegee Syphilis Project,” Western Journal of Speech Communication 49 (1985): 233–47.

2. Lacy and Ono provide a comprehensive review of this body of work in their volume. Michael G. Lacy and Kent A. Ono, Critical Rhetorics of Race (New York: New York University Press, 2012).

3. Mary Stuckey, “Rethinking the Rhetorical Presidency,” Review of Communication 10 (2010): 38–52. Of course, since the election of President Obama, we have seen a wealth of scholarship, much of it in public and presidential address, that has extended, if not challenged, the ways that public and presidential scholars write about the presidency. Though I will not be able, nor do I feel qualified, to address that work here, I do want to know its significance.

4. Lacy and Ono, Critical Rhetorics.

5. Karma R. Chávez, “Beyond Inclusion: Rethinking Rhetoric’s Historical Narrative,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 101 (2015): 152. As we reflect on this piece of it, we have to recognize the impact of the likely silences and absences. For all that rhetorical scholarship can be categorized today as abundant, even if only relative to the origins of racial rhetorical criticism, that intellectual growth requires that we think and act purposefully, thoughtfully, and with a sense of our future. The numbers on scholars of color in the academy remain dire.

6. If you are reading this essay, and you do not know these names, particularly if you are a young scholar of color who experiences the discipline as uninviting, if not hostile, you need to know these four folks, and you need to know that they walked alone. They had no faculty of color colleagues, they had no essays on race in the discipline to read, they had no “race” caucuses and divisions to welcome and foster their growth. Though they tend to be identified in, and perhaps to identify as, intercultural communication scholars, I claim them here if only because their work was so crucial to me, but also because I suspect their location within intercultural communication was necessitated by the whiteness of rhetorical studies, which did not then know how to name them.

7. Kirt H. Wilson, The Reconstruction Desegregation Debate: The Politics of Equality and the Rhetoric of Place, 1870–1875 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2002); Karma R. Chávez, Queer Migration Politics: Activist Rhetoric and Coalitional Possibilities (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2013); Kent A. Ono, Contemporary Media Culture and the Remnants of a Colonial Past (New York: Peter Lang, 2009); Josue David Cisneros, The Border Crossed Us: Rhetorics of Borders, Citizenship, and Latina/o Identity; Eric King Watts, Hearing the Hurt: Rhetoric, Aesthetics, and Politics of the New Negro Movement (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2012); Darrel Wanzer-Serrano, The New York Young Lords and the Struggle for Liberation (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2015).

8. Lacy and Ono, Critical Rhetorics; Michelle A. Holling and Bernadette M. Calafell, ed. Latina/o Discourse in Vernacular Spaces: Somos de Una Voz? (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011); D. Robert DeChaine, ed. Border Rhetorics Citizenship and Identity on the US–Mexico Frontier (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2012).

9. Karlyn Kohrs Campbell, “‘Conventional Wisdom—Traditional Form’: A Rejoinder,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 58 (1972): 452.

10. James Jasinski, “The Status of Theory and Method in Rhetorical Criticism,” Western Journal of Communication 65 (2001): 259.

11. Charles E. Morris III, “(Self-)Portrait of Prof. R. C.: A Retrospective,” Western Journal of Communication 742010): 32.

12. Raymie E. McKerrow, “’Research in Rhetoric’ Revisited,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 101 (2015): 151.

13. Wilson, The Reconstruction Desegregation, xvi–xvii.

14. Watts, Hearing the Hurt, 192.

15. The killing of Michael Brown is notable not because it was an anomaly (“The Counted” lists 231 blacks shot by police so far in 2015) but because, unlike so many police shootings of unarmed people of color, it fostered enough public outcry that many across the nation had to stop and take notice. Though the outcry and subsequent social protest has brought greater attention to these killings, it is still mostly true that relatively few such killings are brought to the public's attention, meaning that the extent of this violence still remains hidden. See “The Counted,” accessed Nov. 1, 2015. http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/ng-interactive/2015/jun/01/the-counted-police-killings-us-database.

16. Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States, 3rd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2015), Location 6181 of 10502.

17. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequaliy in America, 4th ed. (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014), 258–59.

18. He notes, as just one example, the significant recent increase in the wealth gap: “Where the gap used to be ten-to-one, whites now possess on average twenty times the wealth of blacks and eighteen times the wealth of Latinos.” See, ibid, 258, emphasis in original.

19. Alexander Weheliye, Habeas Viscus: Racializing Assemblages, Biopolitics, and Black Feminist Theories of the Human (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014), 8.

20. Chandan Reddy, Freedom with Violence: Race, Sexuality, and the US State (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011), 235.

21. Kelly E. Happe, “The Body of Race: Toward a Rhetorical Understanding of Racial Ideology,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 99 (2013): 133–34.

22. Reynaldo Anderson, Marnel Niles Goins, and Sheena Howard, “Liberalism and Its Discontents: Black Rhetoric and the Cultural Transformation of Rhetorical Studies in the Twentieth Century,” in A Century of Communication Studies: The Unfinished Conversation, ed. Pat J. Gehrke and William M. Keith (New York: Routledge, 2015): 174.

23. Molefi Kete Asante, Afrocentricity: The Theory of Social Change (Buffalo, NY: Amulefi Publishing, 1980). See Anderson, Goins, and Howard, “Liberalism,” for an extended discussion of the scholarly and activist work in this time.

24. See Alberto González, “Listening to Our Voices: Latina/os and the Communities They Speak,” in Latina/o Discourse in Vernacular Spaces: Somos de Una Voz?, ed. Michelle A. Holling and Bernadette M. Calafell (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011), 5–9, for a history of the La Raza Caucus.

25. Mark Lawrence McPhail, The Rhetoric of Racism (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1994); Thomas K. Nakayama, “Show/Down Time: ‘Race,’ Gender, Sexuality, and Popular Culture,” Critical Studies in Mass Communication 11 (1994): 162–79; Kent A. Ono and John M. Sloop, “The Critique of Vernacular Discourse,” Communication Monographs 62 (1995): 19–46; Thomas K. Nakayama and Robert L. Krizek, “Whiteness: A Strategic Rhetoric,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 81 (1995): 291–309; Lisa A Flores, “Creating Discursive Space Through a Rhetoric of Difference: Chicana Feminists Craft a Homeland,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 82 (1996): 142–56; Marouf A. Hasian, Jr. and Fernando Delgado, “The Trials and Tribulations of Racialized Critical Rhetorical Theory: Understanding the Rhetorical Ambiguities of Proposition 187,” Communication Theory 8 (1998): 245–70.

26. Nakayama, “Show/Down Time,” 164.

27. Ono and Sloop, “The Critique,” 40.

28. Flores, “Creating Discursive,” 145.

29. In a move that continues to trouble me, I chose to separate race and whiteness studies, here not incorporating work on whiteness.

30. Bonnie J. Dow, “Criticism and Authority in the Artistic Mode,” Western Journal of Communication 65 (2001): 336–48.

31. Dow, “Criticism and Authority,” 345.

32. Cherríe Moraga and Gloria Anzaldúa, eds. This Bridge Called My Back: Writings By Radical Women of Color , 2nd ed. (New York: Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press, 1983), 23.

33. Bernadette Calafell reminds me of the poignancy of embodiment. See Bernadette Marie Calafell, Latina/o Communication Studies: Theorizing Performance (New York: Peter Lang, 2007), 8.

34. Ono and Sloop, “The Critique,.”

35. Eric King Watts, “’Voice’ and ‘Voicelessness’ in Rhetorical Studies,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 87 (2001): 180, emphasis in original.

36. Watts, “’Voice,’” 190.

37. Bernadette Marie Calafell and Fernando P. Delgado, “Reading Latino/a Images: Interrogating Americanos,” Critical Studies in Media Communication 21 (2004): 7.

38. Teresita Garza, “The Rhetorical Legacy of Coyolxauhqui: (Re)collecting and (Re)membering Voice,” in Latina/o Discourse in Vernacular Spaces: Somos de Una Voz?, ed. Michelle A. Holling and Bernadette M. Calafell (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011), 49.

39. Casey Ryan Kelly, “Blood-Speak: Ward Churchill and the Racialization of American Indian Identity,” Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies 8 (2011): 240–65.

40. Ono and Sloop, “Vernacular.”

41. Chávez, Queer Migration Politics; Claudia A. Anguiano and Karma R. Chávez, “DREAMers’ Discourse: Young Latino/a Immigrants and the Naturalization of the American Dream,” in Latina/o Discourse in Vernacular Spaces, ed. Michelle A. Holling and Bernadette M. Calafell (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011), 81–99.

42. See also Lisa M. Corrigan and Amanda N. Edgar, “’Not Just the Levees Broke’: Jazz Vernacular and the Rhetoric of the Dispossed in Spike Lee’s When the Levees Broke,” Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies 12 (2015): 83–101.

43. Josue David Cisneros, “Reclaiming the Rhetoric of Reies López Tijerinia and Agency in ‘The Land Grant Question,’” Communication Quarterly 60 (2012): 561–87. See also Josue David Cisneros, “(Re)Bordering the Civic Imaginary: Rhetoric, Hybridity, and Citizenship in La Gran Marcha,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 97 (2011): 26–49. While his argument here is not explicitly about vernacular discourse, it has considerable resonance with this work.

44. Michelle A. Holling and Bernadette M. Calafell, “Tracing the Emergence of Latin@ Vernaculars in Studies of Latin@ Communication,” in Latina/o Discourse in Vernacular Spaces, ed. Michelle A. Holling and Bernadette M. Calafell (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011), 22–23.

45. Darrel Enck-Wanzer, “Race, Coloniality, and Geo-Body Politics: The Garden as Latin@ Vernacular Discourse,” Environmental Communication 5 (2011): 365.

46. See, for instance, Fernando P. Delgado, “When the Silenced Speak: The Textualization and Complications of Latino/a Identity,” Western Journal of Communication 62 (1998): 420–38.

47. Darrel Enck-Wanzer, “Gender Politics, Democratic Demand and Anti-Essentialism in the New York Young Lords,” in Latina/o Discourse in Vernacular Spaces, ed. Michelle A. Holling and Bernadette M. Calafell (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011), 62; Jacqueline Bacon, “Declarations of Independence: African American Abolitionists and the Struggle for Racial and Rhetorical Self-Determination,” in Critical Rhetorics of Race, ed. Michael G. Lacy and Kent A. Ono (New York: New York University Press, 2011), 150.

48. Garza, “Rhetorical Legacy,” 39.

49. Michelle A. Holling, “’So My Name is Alma, and I am the Sister of . . . ’: A Feminicidio Testimonio of Violence and Violent Identifications,” Women’s Studies in Communication 37 (2014): 313–38.

50. Ono and Sloop, “The Critique,” 28.

51. Watts, “’Voice,’” 180.

52. See, for instance, Fernando Pedro Delgado, “Chicano Ideology Revisited: Rap Music and the (Re)Articulation of Chicanismo,” Western Journal of Communication 62 (1998): 95–113; Enck-Wanzer, “Gender Politics;” Flores, “Creating Discursive Space;” Garza, “Rhetorical Legacy,” Holling, “’So My Name;’” Christopher Joseph Westgate, “When Sexual Becomes Spiritual: Lila Downs and the Body of Voice,” in Latina/o Discourse in Vernacular Spaces: Somos de Una Voz?, ed. Michelle A. Holling and Bernadette M. Calafell (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2011), 169–84.

53. Anguiano and Chávez, “DREAMers,’” 98.

54. John M. Sloop and Kent A. Ono, “Out-law Discourse: The Critical Politics of Material Judgement,” Philosophy and Rhetoric 30 (1997): 51.

55. Olga Idriss Davis, “In the Kitchen: Transforming the Academy through Safe Spaces of Resistance,” Western Journal of Communication 63 (1999): 372.

56. Eric King Watts, “African American Ethos and Hermeneutical Rhetoric: An Exploration of Alain Locke’s The New Negro,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 88 (2002): 19–32; Watts, Hearing the Hurt.

57. Nakayama and Krizek, “Whiteness,” 300.

58. Jamie Moshin and Ronald L. Jackson, II, “Inscribing Racial Bodes and Relieving Responsibility: Examining Racial Politics in Crash,” in Critical Rhetorics of Race, ed. Michael G. Lacy and Kent A. Ono (New York: New York University Press, 2011), 214–32.

59. See, for instance, Henry A. Giroux, “Identity Politics and the New Cultural Racism,” in Between Borders: Pedagogy and the Politics of Cultural Studies, ed. Henry A Giroux and Peter McLaren (New York: Routledge, 2014), 36–37.

60. Roopali Mukherjee, “Bling Fling: Commodity Consumption and the Politics of the ‘Post-Racial,’” in Critical Rhetorics of Race, ed. Michael G. Lacy and Kent A. Ono (New York: New York University Press, 2011), 180.

61. Bernadette Marie Calafell, Monstrosity, Performance, and Race in Contemporary Culture (New York: Peter Lang, 2015).

62. Anjali Vats, “Racechange is the New Black: Racial Accesorizing and Racial Tourism in High Fashion as Constraints on Rhetorical Agency,” Communication, Culture, & Critique 7 (2014): 112–35. Shanara R. Reid-Brinkley, “The Essence of Res(ex)pectability: Black Women’s Negotiation of Black Femininity in Rap Music and Music Video,” Meridians: feminism, race, transnationalism 8 (2008): 236–60. See also Ralina Joseph, “’Tyra Banks is Fat’: Reading Post-Racism and Post-Feminism in the new Millenium,” Critical Studies in Media Communication 26 (2009): 237–54; and Anjali Vatz and Leilani Nishime, “Containment as NeoColonial Visual Rhetoric: Fashion, Yellow Face, and Karl Lagerfeld’s ‘Idea of China,’” Quarterly Journal of Speech 99 (2013): 423–47.

63. See, for instance, Lisa A. Flores, “Choosing to Consume: Race, Education, and the School Voucher Debate,” in The Motherhood Business: Consumption, Communication, & Privilege, ed. Anne Teresa Demo, Jennifer L. Borda, and Charlotte Kroløkke (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2015): 243–65.

64. Three particularly insightful pieces are Ralina L. Joseph, “Imagining Obama: Reading Overtly and Inferentially Racist Images of our 44th President, 2007–2008,” Communication Studies 62 (2011): 389–405; Darrel Enck-Wanzer, “Barack Obama, The Tea Party, and the Threat of Race: On Racial Neoliberalism and Born Again Racism,” Communication, Culture, & Critique 4 (2011): 23–30, and Vincent N. Pham, “Our Foreign President Barack Obama: The Racial Logics of Birther Discourses,” Journal of International and Intercultural Communication 8 (2015): 86–107. See also Jessy J. Ohl and Jennifer E. Potter, “United We Lynch: Post-Racism and the (Re)Membering of Racial Violence in Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America,” Southern Communication Journal 78 (2013): 185–201 for a related but different argument. Ohl and Potter offer Without Sanctuary as a contemporary corrective of the erasures of post-racialism, noting that it centers the violence of lynching as a collective, if not national, politic of racist violence.

65. See, for instance, Greg Dickinson and Karrin Vasby Anderson, “Fallen: O.J. Simpson, Hillary Rodham Clinton, and the Centering of White Patriarchy,” Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies 1 (2004): 271–96; Suzanne Enck-Wanzer, “All’s Fair in Love and Sport: Black Masculnity and Domestic Violence in the News,” Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies 6 (2009): 1–18; Megan Foley, “Serializing Racial Subjects: The Stagnation and Suspense of the O.J Simpson Saga,” Quarterly Journal of Speech, 96 (2010): 69–88; and Christine Harold and Kevin DeLuca, “Behold the Corpse: Violent Images and the Case of Emmett Till,” Rhetoric and Public Affairs 8 (2005): 263–86.

66. See, for instance, Shannon L. Holland, “The Offending Breast of Janet Jackson: Public Discourse Surrounding the Jackson/Timberlake Performance at Super Bowl XXXVIII,” Women's Studies in Communication 32 (2009): 129–50; Michael G. Lacy, “White Innocence Heroes: Recovery, Reversals, Paternalism, and David Duke,” Journal of International and Intercultural Communication 3 (2010): 206–27; Moshin and Jackson, II, “Inscribing Racial”; Cynthia Willis-Chun, “Tales of Tragedy: Strategic Rhetoric in News Coverage of the Columbine and Virginia Tech Massacres,” in Critical Rhetorics of Race, ed. Michael G. Lacy and Kent A. Ono (New York: New York University Press, 2011), 47–64. It is crucial to note here that while Black masculinity may carry the most extreme violence, the figurations of race extend widely.

67. Michael G. Lacy and Kathleen C. Haspel, “The Media’s Framing of Black Looters, Shooters, and Brutes in Hurricane Katrina’s Aftermath,” in Critical Rhetorics of Race, ed. Michael G. Lacy and Kent A. Ono (New York: New York University Press, 2011), 37. See also Bryan J. McCann, “On Whose Ground: Racialized Violence and the Prereogative of ‘Self-Defense’ in the Trayvon Martin Case,” Western Journal of Communication 78 (2014): 480–99, for a somewhat different but equally significant account of race, violence, and whiteness, and Samuel Perry, “’Strange Fruit,’ Ekphrasis, and the Lynching Scene,” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 43 (2013): 449–74, for a compelling counter moment in which racist violence is made inescapable.

68. See, for instance, Ralina L. Joseph, Transcending Blackness: From the New Millenium Mulatta to the Exceptional Multiracial (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2012) and Suzanne M. Enck and Megan E. Morrissey, “If Orange is the New Black, I Must Be Color Blind: Comic Framings of Post-Racism in the Prison-Industrial Complex,” Critical Studies in Media Communication 32 (2015): 303–17.

69. Kent A. Ono and John M. Sloop, Shifting Borders: Rhetoric, Immigration, and California's Proposition 187 (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2002).

70. Flore, “Creating Discursive Space;” Hasian and Delgado, “Trials and Tribulations.”

71. DeChaine, Border Rhetorics; Cisneros, The Border.

72. McKinnon makes the important point that immigrants and refugees who enter the country, particularly those coming from the Global South and Africa, enter into and are named through US racial binaries. See Sara L. McKinnon, “Unsettling Resettlement: Problematizing ‘Lost Boys of Sudan’ Resettlement and Identity.” Western Journal of Communication 72 (2008): 397–414.

73. Karma R. Chávez, “Border Interventions: The Need to Shift from a Rhetoric of Insecurity to a Rhetoric of Militarization,” in Border Rhetorics: Citizenship and Identity on the US–Mexico Frontier, ed. D. Robert DeChaine (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2012), 48–62.

74. Anne Teresa Demo, “Decriminalizing Illegal Immigration: Immigrants’ Rights through the Documentary Lens,” in Border Rhetorics: Citizenship and Identity on the US–Mexico Frontier, ed. D. Robert DeChaine (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2012), 197–212; Richard D. Pineda and Stacey K. Sowards, “Flag Waving as Visual Argument: 2006 Immigration Demonstrations and Cultural Citizenship,” Argumentation and Advocacy 43 (2007): 164–74.

75. Lisa A. Flores, “Constructing Rhetorical Borders: Peons, Illegal Aliens, and Competing Narratives of Immigration,” Critical Studies in Media Communication 20 (2003): 362–87; J. David Cisneros, “Contaminated Communities: The Metaphor of “Immigrant as Pollution” in Media Representations of Immigration.” Rhetoric & Public Affairs 11 (2008): 569–602; Ono and Sloop, Shifting Borders.

76. Chávez, “Border Interventions,” 48.

77. Marouf Hasian, Jr. and George F. McHendry, Jr., “The Attempted Legitimation of the Vigilante Civil Border Patrols, the Militarization of the Mexican-US Border, and the Law of Unintended Consequences,” in Border Rhetorics: Citizenship and Identity on the US–Mexico Frontier, ed. D. Robert DeChaine (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2012), 115. See also Zach Justus, “Shot in the Back: Articulating the Ideologies of the Minutemen through a Political Trial,” in Border Rhetorics: Citizenship and Identity on the US–Mexico Frontier, ed. D. Robert DeChaine (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2012), 117–30.

78. D. Robert DeChaine, “Bordering the Civic Imaginary: Alienization, Fence Logic, and the Minutemen Civil Defense Corps,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 95 (2009): 43–65; Kent A. Ono, “Borders that Travel: Matters of the Figural Border,” in Border Rhetorics: Citizenship and Identity on the US–Mexico Frontier, ed. D. Robert DeChaine (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2012), 19–32; Kent A. Ono, “Understanding Immigration and Communication Contextually and Interpersonally,” in Identity Research and Communication: Intercultural Reflections and Future Directions, ed. Nilanjana Bardhan and Mark P. Orbe (Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2012), 133–46.

79. Chávez, “Border Interventions.”

80. D. Robert DeChaine, “Introduction: For Rhetorical Border Studies,” in Border Rhetorics: Citizenship and Identity on the US–Mexico Frontier, ed. D. Robert DeChaine (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2012), 14. See also Josue David Cisneros, “Looking ‘Illegal’: Affect, Rhetoric, and Performativity in Arizona’s Senate Bill 1070,” in Border Rhetorics: Citizenship and Identity on the US–Mexico Frontier, ed. D. Robert DeChaine (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2012), 133

81. Ono, “Understanding,” 145; DeChaine, “Bordering,” 44.

82. Dustin Bradley Goltz and Kimberlee Pérez, “Borders Without Bodies: Affect, Proximity, and Utopian Imaginaries through ‘Lines in the Sand,’” in Border Rhetorics: Citizenship and Identity on the US–Mexico Frontier, ed. D. Robert DeChaine (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2012), 163.

83. See Amanda Neil Edgar, “Blackvoice and Adele’s Racialized Musical Performance: Blackness, Whiteness, and Discursive Authenticity,” Critical Studies in Media Communication 31 (2014): 167–81, for a fascinating extension of border rhetoric studies to musicology and racial passing.

84. Cisneros, “Reclaiming,’” 566.

85. Demo, “Decriminalizing,” Cisneros “(Re)Bordering.”

86. Michelle A. Holling, “A Dispensational Rhetoric in ‘The Mexican Question in the Southwest,’” in Border Rhetorics: Citizenship and Identity on the US–Mexico Frontier, ed. D. Robert DeChaine (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2012), 77; Claudia A. Anguiano, “Dropping the ‘I-Word’: A Critical Examination of Contemporary Immigration Labels,” in The Rhetorics of US Immigration: Identity, Community, Otherness, ed. E. Johanna Hartelius (State College: Pennsylvania University Press, 2015): 93–111. See also Anguiano and Chávez, “DREAMers’ Discourse,” and Megan E. Morrissey, “A DREAM Disrupted: Undocumented Migrant Youth’s Rhetorical Disidentifications from US Citizenship,” Journal of International and Interculural Communication 6 (2013): 145–62.

87. Omi and Winant, Racial Formation, loc 210 of 10502.

88. Natalia Molina, How Race is Made in America: Immigration, Citizenship, and the Historical Power of Racial Scripts (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014).

89. Chávez, Queer Migration.

90. Calafell, Monstrosity; Phaedra C. Pezzullo, Toxic Tourism: Rhetorics of Pollution, Travel, and Environmental Justice (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2007); Myra Washington, “’Because I’m Blasian’: Tiger Woods, Scandal, and Protecting the Blasian Brand,” Communication, Culture, & Critique 8 (2015): 522–39.

91. Elsewhere, I have begun to think through this question. See Lisa A. Flores, “Citizen Made Alien: Gender, Race, and Violence in the Politics of War” (paper presented at the Gender & Citizenship Conference, College Station, TX, February 18–21, 2016).

92. Wilson, The Reconstruction Desegregation Debate; Cisneros' The Border Crossed Us; Jason Edward Black, American Indians and the Rhetoric of Removal and Allotment (Jackson, MI: University of Mississippi Press, 2015); Wanzer-Serrano, The New York Young Lords.