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Abstract
This article examines Russian energy policies toward China over the past decade as reluctant engagement changed into a priority energy partnership. From 2008 to 2016 Russian and Chinese companies signed several major oil and gas agreements, a period in which Moscow reassessed China as a future energy consumer and lifted bilateral cooperation to a new level. The article utilizes the strategic partnership concept as an analytical framework and finds traditional realist concepts and hedging inadequate for this particular case. The study illuminates Russian geopolitical considerations and acceptance of vulnerability, which combined make long-term Russian energy policies more China dependent. Officially, Russia seeks diversification among Asian energy buyers, but its focus has increasingly been on China. Western sanctions imposed in 2014 for Russia’s role in Ukraine accelerated this trend. Moscow’s energy policies toward Beijing with its pipelines and long-term agreements are permanent arrangements that resemble strategic partnership policies. China is eager to increase energy relations with Russian companies, but Beijing also ensures that it does not become too dependent on one supplier. Russian concern over its increased dependence on China in the East is deemed secondary to expanding Russia’s customer base beyond the still-dominant European market.
Acknowledgements
To Olav S. Stokke for his continuous support and inspiration; to Jo Inge Bekkevold, Tor Bukkvoll, Kristine Offerdal, Michael Bradshaw, Kristin V. Bruusgaard, Christopher W. Hsiung, and Ingerid Opdahl for reading earlier drafts; and to Viktor Larin, Alexei Voskressenski, Alexander Gabuev, Matthew Sagers, Nikita Lomagin, Anna Poussenkova, Mikhail Krutikhin, Stanislav Roginsky, Alexei Grivach, and Geir Westgaard for valuable insights and discussions on Russo–Chinese energy issues.