ABSTRACT
Environmental awareness has become more important among individuals and societies in recent years. The increasing awareness and sensitivity to the environment have made the reintroduction of natural dyes in the textile industries even more important. To date, natural dyes have been employed in the textile industries for years, and their use is now increasing rapidly. However, there is no standard or no criteria for textiles colored with natural dyes despite the fact that individual and institutional customers, textile brands, and other bodies have been advocating for such as standards. For this reason, NODS (Natural Organic Dye Standard) is required like GOTS (Global Organic Textile Standard), OECO-TEX (International Association for Research and Testing in the Field of Textile and Leather Ecology), and other certificates. The NODS includes a list of natural dye resources (dye plants, dye insects, dye mollusks, dye lichens, and dye fungi), natural coloring compounds, mordant materials, auxiliary substances, and index of fastness properties of dyes used in textiles, and list of prohibited, and restricted substances. The standards also specify test and analysis methods.
摘要
近年来，环境意识在个人和社会中变得越来越重要. 随着人们对环境的认识和敏感性的提高，天然染料在纺织行业的重新引入变得更加重要. 迄今为止，天然染料已在纺织工业中使用多年，其使用量正在迅速增加. 然而，尽管个人和机构客户、纺织品牌和其他机构一直在提倡使用天然染料染色的纺织品，但没有标准或标准. 因此，需要NODS（天然有机染料标准），如GOTS（全球有机纺织品标准）、OECO-TEX（国际纺织品和皮革生态研究与测试协会）和其他证书. NODS包括天然染料资源清单（染料植物、染料昆虫、染料软体动物、染料地衣和染料真菌）、天然色素化合物、媒染剂材料、辅助物质、纺织品中使用的染料的牢度指数，以及禁止和限制物质清单. 标准还规定了测试和分析方法.
Introduction
In the past textile goods (such as a garment or home textiles), have been demanded on the market based on their price. The principal purpose of the textile companies producing fabrics and goods was to manufacture at low cost. Nowadays, when purchasing textile goods consumers demand not only specific designs, functionalities, and quality levels but also safety and consideration for ecology, with concern for the protection of the environment and producers in developing countries. Sustainability is becoming more of a marketing tool in the fashion supply chain, forcing textile producers to respect high environmental standards in their production methods (Caniato et al. Citation2012). Textile production is extremely complex and involves a multitude of mechanical, chemical, and physicochemical processes. These processes can include some harmful and toxic substances such as heavy metals, pesticides, etc. However, the processes are strictly controlled by ZDCH (Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals), OEKO-TEX (International Association for Research and Testing in the Field of Textile and Leather Ecology), and GOTS (Global Organic Textile Standard), etc. standards.
One of the most important issues of recent years is the ZDHC concept in textile dyeing and goods (https://chem-map.com/zdhc-mrsl/; Ozdemir & Karadag Citation2023). It is known that natural dyes are the most suitable method for the criteria of ZDCH and this dyeing is encouraged in textile dyeings by important textile companies. But since there is no natural dye criteria and standards, the end consumer is misled. This is due to fact that instead of natural dye products, synthetic dyed products are sold. This obtains unfair gains and the ZDHC criteria are being eroded.
OECO-TEX, the subject of ecological textiles, was brought up in the 1990s with this standard. Production by the environment and human health is based. Production of textile products starts from the raw material to the final product and even to the waste state. Every substance and chemical used in the process, including sewing thread, and zipper buttons, obliges to certify that it does not contain dangerous substances. In addition, wastewater, flue gas, and human health issues are also covered by the standard. The standard focused on the development of methods for testing pH, dangerous substances, heavy metals, toxic dyes, crop protection substances, and carcinogenic substances like formaldehyde, phenols, or pesticide in testing articles.
GOTS minimum textile of products must be produced from 70% organic, in all processes. Processing, samples, import, packaging, and inspection are always reviewed. GOTS-certified products must contain at least 70% organic fiber in all chemical products and international conditions should be suitable. Organic Standardization of Fibers International Standards systems such as EEC 834/2007 should be suitable. Quality Assurance System (ISO 9001) Compliance with all requirements of the standard in the training of a company working with GOTS should be met. GOTS aims to define requirements to ensure the organic status of textiles, from harvesting raw materials, through environmentally and socially responsible manufacturing up to labeling to provide a credible assurance to the end consumer. The controlling of the production, processing, manufacturing, packaging, labeling, quality and certification, export, and import of all products from natural fibers (https://global-standard.org).
CE (European Conformity Quality) certificate is the product passport for textiles. A requirement to be complied with for products covered by EU countries. The non-EU country is a requirement for them to sell their products in this market.
RCS (Recycled Claim Standard) and GRS (Global Recycled Standard) are international, voluntary standards that set requirements for third-party certification of recycled input and chain of custody. The shared goal of the standards is to increase the use of recycled materials. The GRS includes additional criteria for social and environmental processing requirements and chemical restrictions (https://textileexchange.org/standards/recycled).
The desire to control bacteria, fungi, mold, and algae and eliminate some human health problems, damage, stains, smells, and some materials that have been antimicrobial modified increased considerably in recent years. Biocidal products used to treat various textile materials are designed to neutralize and prevent the action or to exercise effective control on the development of any harmful organism in chemical or biological ways. At the same time, biocides may manifest harmful effects on humans, and animals. Biocides are used to maintain textiles in good hygienic conditions to avoid mold formation and deterioration. Biocidal products are regulated and the use of biocides is restricted. Residue tests are analyzed according to ISO 17,025. Pesticides, fertilizers used during the cultivation of natural fibers (e.g. cotton), and pesticides do not decompose until final use in humans. They increase toxic substances. This harms the reproductive, hormonal, and immune systems of humans.
Heavy metals such as arsenic, lead, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, nickel, copper, and mercury can be found in dyestuffs used in coloring.
PFOS (perfluorooctane sulfonate), PFOA (perfluorooctanoic acid), and Teflon (Fluoro Carbon) have been used because of their heat-resistant, water, and oil-repellent properties in textile, leather, and paper coating, dyeing (Hou et al. Citation2022). But these substances have carcinogenic effects and their use was restricted or prohibited.
There are many academic studies on using natural dyes in the textile industry. The number of these studies has been increasing rapidly in recent years (Alkan, Torgan, and Karadag Citation2017; Baaka Citation2020; Guzel and Karadag Citation2021; Guzel, Karadag, and Alkan Citation2020). There are many methods and many different recipe studies in the dyeing of protein and cellulose-based fibers with natural dyes (Karadag Citation2022, Citation2023; Ozdemir and Karadag Citation2023; Karadag and Yildiz Citation2022; Karadag, Buyukakinci, and Guzel Citation2022).
Sustainability, awareness, and properties of natural dyes are especially important to environmentally sensitive and conscious consumers, as interest in textile products dyed with natural dyes has grown in recent years. Many textile industries are using natural dyes in some of their production to meet the demands of their customers. Some textile companies continue their R&D studies for mass production with natural dyeing. Yet, there is no standard to check that a textile product has been dyed with natural dye. Thus, it is necessary to establish the NODS (Natural Organic Dye Standard) The NODS aims to define particular requirements to ensure the natural dye status of textiles, from raw materials to environmentally and sustainably responsible manufacturing to provide credible assurance to the end consumer.
Natural dye raw materials
The NODS include 1686 main natural biological dye resources (dye plants, dye insects, dye mollusks, dye lichens, and dye fungi) and 228 main coloring compounds (dyestuffs) contained in these biological dyestuff resources books (Böhmer et al. Citation2002; Cardon Citation2007; Karadag Citation2007; Schweppe Citation1992) and in many publications (Amin et al. Citation2020; Ammayappan and Shakyawar Citation2016; Baliarsingh et al. Citation2012; Cooksey Citation2019; Karapanagiotis et al. Citation2007; Petroviciua et al. Citation2012; Shahid, Islam, and Mohammad Citation2013; Venil et al. Citation2020).
Dye plants
The vast majority of natural dye raw materials are dye plants. The roots, stems, branches, and flowers or whole parts of certain plants are utilized in natural dyeings. The main coloring compounds (dyestuffs) of the dye plants are anthraquinones, flavonoids, anthocyanins, carotenoids, indigoids, and tannins, as outlined in these dyestuffs resources books (Böhmer et al. Citation2002; Cardon Citation2007; Karadag Citation2007; Schweppe Citation1992) and many publications (Baliarsingh et al. Citation2012; Petroviciua et al. Citation2012; Shahid, Islam, and Mohammad Citation2013). The NODS includes 1546 dye plants ().
Table 1. List of dye plants.
Dye insects
Generally, red and purple colors were obtained from dye insects. The main coloring compounds (dyestuffs) of the dye insects are carminic acid, kermesic acid, flavokermesic acid, and laccaic acid as included in many. The coloring compounds are anthraquinones books (Böhmer et al. Citation2002; Cardon Citation2007; Karadag Citation2007; Schweppe Citation1992) and many publications (Amin et al. Citation2020; Ammayappan and Shakyawar Citation2016; Cooksey Citation2019; Raisanen Citation2009; Reese Citation2008; Shaheen, Iqbal, and Hussain Citation2018; Shahid, Islam, and Mohammad Citation2013; Şahinbaşkan, Karadag, and Torgan Citation2018). The standard includes 13 dye insects ().
Table 2. List of dye insects.
Dye molluscs
The purple color was obtained from dye mollusks. The purple dye extracted from mollusks has historically been considered a luxurious color and evidence of its first use has been found around the Mediterranean basin. The color has been known as Imperial and Royal purple since ancient times. The dye mollusks include indigoid coloring compounds, as contained in many books (Böhmer et al. Citation2002; Cardon Citation2007; Karadag Citation2007; Schweppe Citation1992) and many publications (Karapanagiotis et al. Citation2007; Reese Citation2008). The standard includes 12 dye mollusks ().
Table 3. List of dye mollusks.
Dye lichens
Several dyes have been obtained from lichens, and the use of lichens to produce dyes has a long history. Lichens form a group comprising of more peculiar natural colorants in dyeing violet and purple colors that have been widely used in Europe and other parts of the world since ancient times up until the beginning of the Middle Ages. The standard includes mainly 46 dye lichens (Cardon Citation2007; Schweppe Citation1992) as do many publications (Raisanen Citation2009; Shaheen, Iqbal, and Hussain Citation2018) ().
Table 4. List of dye lichens.
Dye fungi
Fungi occupy a unique place in the history of dyeing. The fungi class of organisms previously considered part of the plant kingdom, is now recognized as a separate kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals. Most fungi produce pigments that are water-soluble and ideal for industrial production since they can be easily to scaled up in industrial fermenters and extracted without the use of organic solvents (Venil et al. Citation2020). The standard includes 72 dye fungi (Cardon Citation2007; Schweppe Citation1992) as do many publications (Venil et al. Citation2020) ().
Table 5. List of dye fungi.
Coloring compounds (dyestuffs)
Natural coloring compounds include a group of quinones (naphthoquinone, anthraquinone, etc.), flavonoids, anthocyanin, carotenoids, indigoids, and tannins (Böhmer et al. Citation2002; Cardon Citation2007; Karadag Citation2007; Schweppe Citation1992) demonstrated as well in many publications (Andsen and Markham Citation2006). The standard includes 228 coloring compounds ().
Table 6. List of dyestuff.
Fastness
The color fastness property of textile materials, especially fabric is very important for processing and use. It is the ability to withstand the reduction of color from the surface of textile materials when undergoing different processes and treatments. The response of the color fastness property to washing, light, rubbing, and sweat fastness (alkaline and acidic) of the dyed goods was determined according to ISO 105 C06 A1 M, ISO 105 B02, ISO 105 × 12, and ISO 105 E04, respectively ().
Table 7. List of fastness values.
Prohibited and restricted substances
Prohibited and restricted substances in the GOTS (Global Organic Textile Standard) were prohibited and restricted by the NODS (Natural Organic Dye Standard) (). Synthetic coloring compounds (dyestuffs) and synthetic binders are also prohibited under GOTS standards (https://global-standard.org/). In addition, list of restricted substances in finished products, major risk areas in the textile supply chain, and the importance of manufacturing restricted substances were given (Gobalakrishnan, Das, and Saravanan Citation2021).
Table 8. Inorganic Element Content Maximum Limits in the Natural Dyed Product.
Table 9. Prohibited and Restricted Substances.
Table 10. Maximum Limits of Residues in Products.
Table 11. Natural mordant substance in the product content.
Table 12. Synthetic dyestuffs and binders contained in the product.
Result and discussion
NODS was set as a standard after the needs of the textile industries and the demand of customers. Numerous published articles (Deveogl and Karadag Citation2019; Şahinbaşkan, Karadag, and Torgan Citation2018) and books (Böhmer et al. Citation2002; Cardon Citation2007; Karadag Citation2007; Raisanen Citation2009; Schweppe Citation1992) about natural dyes and natural coloring compounds have been published in the last thirty years. NODS includes natural dyes/coloring compounds found in textile goods (). It rates the fastness of natural dyes lower than of synthetic dyes in cellulose-based fibers or fabrics. For this reason, it has been assumed that the fastness of natural dyes is moderate. However, the fastness values are sufficient for the textile companies using them for natural dyed textiles goods (). Heavy metals and substances that are restricted, prohibited, and limited to use in textile products according to GOTS standards were also restricted, prohibited, and limited uses in NODS standards ().
Free mordant metals and some free elements were given in the NODS (). All synthetic dyestuff groups and all synthetic binder groups contained in the textile product were prohibited in the NODS ().
Conclusion
Quality, sustainability, eco-friendly, awareness, ZHCD, GOTS, and other criteria now outweigh price as the prime consideration for customers. Natural dye resources and natural coloring compounds (dyestuffs) are increasingly used in high-volume textile production industries (Karadag Citation2022, Citation2023). With both consumer and brand demand, it has become a necessity set a standard (NODS) in the dyed textile products for natural dyes as well as the other desirable standards for textile products. NODS criteria are also requested in the natural dyed productions. To respond to this demand, the articles have developed criteria for NODS based on previous research. When purchasing textiles that follow the NODS, the consumers can be sure that the goods are colored with natural dye and will be able to use them with confidence. Brands and textile industries that produce according to the NODS will be earning more while contributing to sustainability and eco-friendly dyeings.
By its nature, the NODS does not include dangerous substances, heavy metals, toxic dyes, carcinogenic substances, pesticides, and synthetic dyes.
Following new developed in technology and materials, and responding to new customer demands, and to new analysis methods, engineers and chemists are constantly improving and refining standards such as GOTS, OECO-TEX, ZDHC, and others. For similar reasons, new versions of NODS will also respond to changes in science. NODS creates important and timely new standards for the textile industry. It is created exclusively for textiles that use natural dyes and is not suitable for synthetic materials or synthetic dyes. The image of the NODS standard was designed as above the title.
Highlights
Natural dyes have been used in the textile dyeing industry in recent years and are increasing rapidly. However, there is no standard for the use of natural dyes in textile goods and textile dyeings.
One of the most important issues of recent years is the Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZDHC) concept in textile dyeing and goods. It is known that natural dye is the most suitable method for the criteria of ZDCH and this dyeing is encouraged in the textile dyeings by important textile companies.
All dye plants, dye insects, and dye mollusks were given used in the natural dyeings in the manuscript.
Fastness tests were given in the manuscript.
NODS is demanded by the textile industries and their customers.
Acknowledgments
Support from the Turkish Cultural Foundation is gratefully acknowledged (www.turkishculturalfoundation.org; www. tcfdatu.org). The author would like to thank Tuğçe Günaydın Sinir for the NODS logo design, and Prof. Amanda Phillips and Dr.Yusuf Yildiz for editorial comments.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
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