Diplomacy and the Appointment of officials in Late Qing China: He Ruzhang and Japan’s Annexation Of Ryukyu

Abstract

The Ryukyu Kingdom was annexed by Meiji Japan in late 1879. Past scholarly works have focused on Li Hongzhang and the Zongli Yamen, the stewards of affairs relating to foreigners, in examining the Qing court’s responses to Japan’s annexation of its tributary state. By incorporating the latest arguments of Western and especially Chinese scholarship, this article investigates the attempts by He Ruzhang, China’s first minister to Japan, to reestablish Ryukyu’s tributary relationship with China and maintain Ryukyu’s independence. It reassesses the Ryukyu issue by contextualizing it in late Qing bureaucratic culture and institutional innovations. Although the Qing state’s system of appointments enabled He Ruzhang to serve as minister to Japan, factionalism, political rivalry, and a lack of coordination among the new institutions and personnel tasked to manage foreign affairs ultimately frustrated his attempts as a traditional scholar-official to uphold the Chinese tributary system.

Keywords:

• diplomacy
• He Ruzhang
• Meiji Japan
• Qing dynasty
• Ryukyu

Notes

1 For the bureaucratic and extra-bureaucratic workings of the Qing government, see Silas H.L. Wu, Communication and Imperial Control in China: Evolution of the Palace Memorial System, 1693–1735 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970); Philip A. Kuhn, Soulstealers: The Chinese Sorcery Scare of 1768 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990); Beatrice Bartlett, Monarchs and Ministers: The Grand Council in Mid-Ch’ing China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); R. Kent Guy, Qing Governors and Their Provinces: The Evolution of Territorial Administration in China, 1644–1796 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2010); and Wensheng Wang, White Lotus Rebels and South China Pirates: Crisis and Reform in the Qing Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014). For the Western advisers, see Jonathan D. Spence, To Change China: Western Advisers in China, 1620–1960 (Boston, MA: Little Brown, 1969).

2 For the reconfiguration of power relations in the Qing state, see William T. Rowe, “The Significance of the Qianlong-Jiaqing Transition in Qing History,” Late Imperial China, 32, no. 2 (2011): 74–88; Daniel McMahon, Rethinking the Decline of China’s Qing Dynasty: Imperial Activism and Borderland Management at the Turn of the Nineteenth Century (New York: Routledge, 2015); and Seunghyun Han, After the Prosperous Age: State and Elites in Early Nineteenth-century Suzhou (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center, 2016). For the Canton system, see Paul A. Van Dyke, The Canton Trade: Life and Enterprise on the China Coast, 1700–1845 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2005).

3 Examples of Chinese works on Ryukyu include Xie Bizhen 謝必震, Ming Qing Zhong Liu hanghai maoyi yanjiu 明清中琉航海貿易研究 (A study of Sino-Ryukyuan maritime trade in the Ming-Qing era) (Beijing: Haiyang chubanshe, 2004); Lai Zhengwei 賴正維, Qingdai Zhong Liu guanxi yanjiu 清代中琉關係研究 (A study of Sino-Ryukyuan relations during the Qing dynasty) (Beijing: Haiyang chubanshe, 2011); and Dai Dongyang 戴東陽, Wan Qing zhu Ri shituan yu Jiawu zhan qian de Zhong Ri guanxi (1876–1894) 晚清駐日使團與甲午戰前的中日關係 (1876–1894) (Chinese diplomatic missions in Japan and Sino-Japanese relations before the First Sino-Japanese War, 1876–1894) (Beijing: Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe, 2012). Several Japanese scholars have also called the annexation of Ryukyu an “incident” (Ryukyu jiken 琉球事件), but most scholars used the term Ryukyu shobun 琉球処分 (Ryukyu disposition). For instance, see Kinjo Seitoku 金城正篤., Ryukyu shobun ron 琉球処分論 (A discussion of the Ryukyu disposition) (Naha: Okinawa Taimususha, 1978); Arakawa Akira 新川明, Rykyu shobun igo 琉球処分以後 (After the Ryukyu disposition) (Tokyo: Asahi Shinbunsha, 1981); Akamine Mamoru 赤嶺守, Ryukyu okoku: higashi Ajia no kona suton 琉球王国: 東アジアのコーナーストーン (The Ryukyu Kingdom: cornerstone of East Asia) (Tokyo: Kodansha, 2004).

4 Edwin Pak-wah Leung, “Li Hung-chang and the Liu-ch’iu (Ryukyu) Controversy, 1871–1881,” in Li Hung-chang and China’s Early Modernization, ed. Samuel C. Chu and Kwang-Ching Liu (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1994), 170. Leung’s article, otherwise an excellent account of Japan’s annexation of Ryukyu, considers the issue largely from the perspectives of Li Hongzhang and the Zongli Yamen and pays scant attention to He Ruzhang.

5 He Ruzhang was the major exception—most of the zhengtu bureaucrats who accepted postings abroad as ministers realized that their classical Chinese learning was ignored and irrelevant to their assignment. See Douglas R. Reynolds, East Meets East: Chinese Discover the Modern World in Japan, 1854–1898 (Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Asian Studies, 2014), 418.

6 Yu Zheng 俞政, He Ruzhang zhuan 何如璋傳 (A biography of He Ruzhang) (Nanjing: Nanjing daxue chubanshe, 1991), 3–4. Tribute students enjoyed legal and tax benefits and, at the recommendation of the magistrates, could study at the Hanlin Academy or receive appointments to minor offices. See Benjamin A. Elman, Civil Examinations and Meritocracy in Late Imperial China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), 4.

7 For this estimate and other figures, see Marianne Bastid-Bruguier, “Currents of Social Change,” in The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 11: Late Ch’ing, 1800–1911, Part 2, ed. John K. Fairbank and Kwang-Ching Liu (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 538. For the sale of office in Qing China, see Elisabeth Kaske, “Fund-Raising Wars: Office Selling and Interprovincial Finance in Nineteenth-Century China,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 71, no. 1 (2011): 69–141; and “The Price of an Office: Venality, the Individual, and the State in 19th Century China,” in Metals, Monies, and Markets in Early Modern Societies: East Asian and Global Perspectives, ed. Thomas Hirzel and Nanny Kim (Berlin: LIT Verlag, 2008), 279–304.

8 Wen Tingjing 溫廷敬, “Qing zhanshifu shaozhan Hegong zhuan” 清詹事府少詹何公傳 (A biography of Lord He, the Supervisor of the Household Administration of the Heir Apparent during the Qing dynasty), in He Ruzhang ji 何如璋集 (The collected writings of He Ruzhang), ed. Wu Zhenqing 吳振清 and Wu Yuxian 吳裕賢 (Tianjin: Tianjin renmin chubanshe, 2010), 379–80.

9 Philip A. Kuhn, Origins of the Modern Chinese State (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002), 55–56.

10 For the relationship between the Tongcheng School and Qing politics, see Zeng Guangguang 曾光光, Tongcheng pai yu Qingdai xueshu liubian 桐城派與清代學術流變 (The Tongcheng School and changes in Qing scholarship) (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 2016).

11 For this definition, see Kwang-Ching Liu, “Li Hung-chang in Chihli: The Emergence of a Policy, 1870–1875,” in Li Hung-chang and China’s Early Modernization, 49.

12 Wen, “Qing zhanshifu shaozhan Hegong zhuan,” 380.

13 Wu Daorong 吳道鎔, “He zhanshi jiazhuan” 何詹事家傳 (A biography of He Ruzhang’s family), in He Ruzhang ji, 377.

14 Kwang-Ching Liu, “The Confucian as Patriot and Pragmatist: Li Hung-chang’s Formative Years, 1823–1866,” in Li Hung-chang and China’s Early Modernization, 17.

15 Liu, “Li Hung-chang in Chihli,” 49–75.

16 For the debates, see Ren Yunxian’s 任雲仙 articles “19 shiji 60 niandai moqi Zhongguo waijiao guannian tanxi” 19 世紀60年代末期中國外交觀念探析 (A discussion of diplomatic views in late 1860s China), Shehui kexue jikan 社會科學輯刊, 160, no. 5 (2005): 150–55; and “Wan Qing zhuwai shichen de qunti goucheng yu zhishi jiegou” 晚清駐外使臣的群體構成與知識結構 (The group composition and knowledge structure of late Qing legations), Guizhou shehui kexue 貴州社會科學, 195, no. 3 (2005): 138–43. For a dated yet relevant study, see Immanuel C.Y. Hsu, China’s Entrance into the Family of Nations: The Diplomatic Phase, 1858–1880 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960), 149–98.

17 For Li Hongzhang’s scope of influence in relation to foreign affairs, see Liu, “Li Hung-chang in Chihli,” 49–75; and Jennifer M. Rudolph, Negotiated Power in Late Imperial China: The Zongli Yamen and the Politics of Reform (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University East Asia Program, 2008), 101–31. Foreign diplomats had the habit of meeting Li Hongzhang before proceeding to Beijing to “get a sense of China’s sentiment by the substance and tenor of Li’s statements,” cementing Li Hongzhang’s status as an indispensable figure in Qing diplomacy. See Samuel C. Chu, “Li Hung-chang: An Assessment,” in Li Hung-chang and China’s Early Modernization, 269–70.

18 See Li Hongzhang 李鴻章, in Gu Tinglong 顧廷龍 and Dai Yi 戴逸, eds., Li Hongzhang quanji 李鴻章全集 (The complete works of Li Hongzhang), Vol. 35 (Hefei: Anhui jiaoyu chubanshe, 2008), 111.

19 Reynolds, East Meets East, 99–125.

20 Li Wenjie 李文傑, Zhongguo jindai waijiaoguan qunti de xingcheng (1861–1911) 中國近代外交官群體的形成 (1861–1911) (The emergence of modern Chinese diplomats: officials in the Zongli Yamen, Waiwu Bu, and Legations, 1861–1911) (Beijing: Sanlian, 2016), 282.

21 For the expectant officials, see Xiao Zongzhi 肖宗志, Houbu wenguan qunti yu wan Qing zhengzhi 候補文官群體與晚清政治 (The expectant official cohort and late Qing politics) (Chengdu: Bashu shushe, 2007).

22 Li, Zhongguo jindai waijiaoguan qunti de xingcheng, 351.

23 For a list and description of He Ruzhang’s staff in Japan, see Reynolds, East Meets East, 99–101.

24 Li, Zhongguo jindai waijiaoguan qunti de xingcheng, 260. For He Ruzhang’s interactions with Japanese literati, see He Ruzhang, “Yu Ribenren bitan” 與日本人筆談 (Brush conversations with the Japanese), in He Ruzhang ji, 298–374.

25 Li Hongzhang, Li Wenzhong gong quanshu: zougao 李文忠公全書: 奏稿 (The collected writings of Li Hongzhang: memorials), juan 24 (Jinling: unknown publisher, 1905), 26–28. See also Dong Weimin 董為民, Yin Zhaolu 殷昭魯, and Zhang Sheng 張生, eds., Qingji Liuqiu jiaoshe dang’an 清季琉球交涉檔案 (Archival materials concerning the negotiations over Ryukyu during the Qing period) (Nanjing: Nanjing daxue chubanshe, 2016), 310.

26 Hsu, China’s Entrance into the Family of Nations, 193–94.

27 Dai, Wan Qing zhu Ri shituan yu Jiawu zhanqian de Zhong Ri guanxi, 3–4.

28 Leung, “Li Hung-chang and the Liu-ch’iu (Ryukyu) Controversy,” 170–71.

29 Chu, “Li Hung-chang: An Assessment,” 271.

30 Lloyd E. Eastman, Throne and Mandarins: China’s Search for a Policy during the Sino-French Controversy, 1880–1885 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967). More recent Chinese scholarship suggests that the division between Qingliu 清流 (“Pure Stream”), a loose group of qingyi adherents, and Yangwu 洋務 (“Western Affairs,” or self-strengtheners with a knowledge of foreign matters), was not as rigid as assumed by previous research; Qing officials could not be easily pigeonholed as belonging to either the Qingliu or Yangwu faction. See Wang Weijiang 王維江, “Qingliu” yanjiu “清流” 研究 (A study of “Qingliu”) (Shanghai: Shanghai shudian chubanshe, 2009).

31 Chu, “Li Hung-chang: An Assessment,” 269–71. For a flowchart that depicts Zongli Yamen’s place in the Qing administrative structure, see Rudolph, Negotiated Power in Late Imperial China, 106.

32 Reynolds, East Meets East, 2.

33 This was, at least, the situation during He Ruzhang’s stay in Japan. Reynolds, East Meets East, 30–40; and 412. For the anxieties of Zongli Yamen secretaries, see Li Wenjie 李文傑, “Wan Qing Zongli Yamen de zhangjing kaoshi: jianlun keju zhidu xia waijiaoguan de xuanren” 晚清總理衙門的章京考試: 兼論科舉制度下外交官的選任 (The late Qing Zongli Yamen examinations for zhangjing candidates: with a discussion of diplomatic appointments under the imperial examination system), Jindai shi yanjiu, no. 2 (2011): 107–23.

34 For Guo Songtao’s plight, see Hsu, China’s Entrance into the Family of Nations, 186–90; 201.

35 See Gugong bowuyuan 故宮博物院, ed., Qing Guangxu chao Zhong Ri jiaoshe shiliao 清光緒朝中日交涉史料 (Historical sources on Sino-Japanese negotiations during the Qing Guangxu reign), juan 1 (Taipei: Wenhai chubanshe, 1963), 11.

36 Qing Guangxu chao Zhong Ri jiaoshe shiliao, juan 1, 21–25.

37 See Wen Tingjing 溫廷敬, Chayang sanjia wenchao/ He shaozhan wenchao 茶陽三家文鈔/ 何少詹文鈔 (Literary works of three authors of Dapu county/ The writings of He Ruzhang), in He Ruzhang ji, 95–96.

38 Dai, Wan Qing zhu Ri shituan yu Jiawu zhanqian de Zhong Ri guanxi, 5–6; 23.

39 Wen, Chayang sanjia wenchao, 96–97.

40 Wen, Chayang sanjia wenchao, 97.

41 Li Hongzhang, Li Wenzhong gong quanshu: yishu hanguo 李文忠公全書: 譯署函稿 (The collected writings of Li Hongzhang: letters with the Translation Bureau), juan 8 (Jinling: unknown publisher, 1905), 4–6. See also Qingji Liuqiu jiaoshe dang’an, 312–13.

42 Qing Guangxu chao Zhong Ri jiaoshe shiliao, juan 1, 24–25. See also Li Hongzhang, Li Wenzhong gong quanshu: yishu hangao, juan 8, 1–2.

43 Wang Yanwei 王彥威, Qingji waijiao shiliao 清季外交史料 (Historical materials on Qing foreign relations), juan 15 (Beijing: Wang Xiyin, 1932), 11–13.

44 Leung, “Li Hung-chang and the Liu-ch’iu Controversy,” 167.

45 Yu, He Ruzhang zhuan, 33–34.

46 Li, “Wan Qing Zongli Yamen de zhangjing kaoshi,” 107–23.

47 Wang, Qingji waijiao shiliao, juan 15, 11–13.

48 Li Hongzhang, Li Wenzhong gong quanshu: yishu hangao, 25–26.

49 Wang, Qingji waijiao shiliao, juan 15, 11–13.

50 Li, Li Wenzhong gong quanshu: yishu hangao, juan 8, 25–26.

51 Wen, Chayang sanjia wenchao, 98–99.

52 Li, Li Wenzhong gong quanshu: yishu hangao, juan 8, 40–41.

53 Huang Tian 黃天, Liuqiu Chongsheng jiaoti kao: Diaoyudao guishu xunyuan zhi yi 琉球衝繩交替考: 釣魚島歸屬尋源之一 (A study of Ryukyu’s transformation into Okinawa: on the origins of the sovereignty of the Diaoyu islands) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 2016), 187–241.

54 Li, Li Wenzhong gong quanshu: yishu hangao, juan 9, 39–41.

55 Li, Li Wenzhong gong quanshu: yishu hangao, juan 10, 3–4.

56 Wen, Chayang sanjia wenchao, 111.

57 Key-Hiuk Kim, “The Aims of Li Hung-chang’s Policies toward Japan and Korea, 1870–1882,” in Li Hung-chang and China’s Early Modernization, 156.

58 Qingji Liuqiu jiaoshe dang’an, 346–47.

59 Yu, He Ruzhang zhuan, 46–48.

60 Leung, “Li Hung-chang and the Liu-ch’iu (Ryukyu) Controversy,” 167–68.

61 Leung, “Li Hung-chang and the Liu-ch’iu (Ryukyu) Controversy,” 171.

62 Dai, Wan Qing zhu Ri shituan yu Jiawu zhanqian de Zhong Ri guanxi, 9. Dai Dongyang may understand more about China’s ministers to Japan because she has made extensive use of sources from Japanese archives and libraries, many of which are previously untapped.

63 See Wu Zhenqing 吳振清 and Wu Yuxian 吳裕賢 eds., “He Ruzhang zhuanji ziliao” 何如璋傳記資料 (Materials on the biography of He Ruzhang), in He Ruzhang ji, 399. As described by Douglas R. Reynolds, He Ruzhang was frustrated with the Qing court’s weak response to Japan’s annexation of Ryukyu and supported the self-strengthening policies. However, for lack of proper training, he helped bring about the destruction of the Fuzhou Naval Yard by the French during the Sino-French War—a major disaster and humiliation for China. See Reynolds, East Meets East, 36; 117–20.

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Ying-Kit Chan

Ying-kit Chan is a doctoral candidate in the Department of East Asian Studies, Princeton University. He serves as the editorial assistant for NAN NÜ Men, Women and Gender in China. A student of late imperial China, he has published several papers on Qing China as well as on postcolonial Singapore and is researching the anxieties of Guangdong intellectuals about the possible partition of their province at the turn of the twentieth century. His latest articles have appeared in Frontiers of History in China, International Journal of Asian Studies, Journal of Chinese History, and Monumenta Serica.