Notes
1 A similar hierarchy had existed as early as the 1920s in Shanghai. See Emily Honig, Sisters and Strangers: Women in the Shanghai Cotton Mills, 1919–1949 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986).
2 For example, see Wu Jieh-min, “Migrant Citizenship Regimes in Globalized China: A Historical-Institutional Comparison,” Rural China: An International Journal of History and Social Science 14 (2017): 128–154.