![Sample our Bioscience journals, sign in here to start your access, Latest two full volumes FREE to you for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5925/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Bioscience.jpg"})
Abstract
The aromatic anticonvulsants carbamazepine (CBZ) and phenytoin (PHN) are associated with a relatively high incidence of idiosyncratic drug reactions (IDRs). If biomarkers could be found that would predict the risk that a drug candidate would cause IDRs it would significantly decrease the risks associated with drug development. The IDRs associated with CBZ and PHN appear to be immune-mediated. The Danger Hypothesis posits that for something to induce an immune response, it must cause some type of cell damage that ultimately causes up-regulation of co-stimulatory molecules on antigen-presenting cells; without this, the response will be immune tolerance. If the Danger Hypothesis is correct, the ability of a drug or its reactive metabolite to induce cell damage or stress may be related to its risk of causing IDRs. In a parallel study reported elsewhere, we found that major metabolites of these two drugs: 3-OH-CBZ and 4-OH-PHN can be oxidized by peroxidases to phenoxyl free radicals, which could cause oxidative stress by redox cycling. In this study using mRNA microarrays, we found that CBZ and PHN treatment induced changes in mRNA expression in mice. Many of the changes were in genes related to Keap1-Nrf2-ARE signaling pathways and enzymes involved in responding to oxidant stressors and reactive metabolites such as glutathione transferase and heat shock proteins. The similar patterns of genes induced by these two drugs are consistent with the clinical observation that those two drugs exhibit cross-sensitivity. These findings are consistent with the induction of cell stress by CBZ and PHN, most likely due to reactive metabolites. Such changes may represent a danger signal and represent a biomarker of the potential that a drug will cause IDRs; however, different drugs likely cause cell stress by different mechanisms and, therefore, the biomarkers for other drugs would likely be different.
| Abbreviations | ||
| AP-1, | = | activator protein 1 |
| PPARα, | = | peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α |
| ARE, | = | antioxidant response element |
| CBZ, | = | carbamazepine |
| Cp, | = | crossing point |
| GST, | = | glutathione S-transferase |
| Gapdh, | = | glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate dehydrogenase |
| HSP, | = | heat shock protein |
| IDR, | = | idiosyncratic drug reaction |
| Keap1, | = | Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 |
| MA, | = | Macrophage activators |
| NF-κ B, | = | nuclear factor κ B |
| Nrf2, | = | nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 |
| 3-OH-CBZ, | = | 3-hydroxycarbamazepine |
| 4-OH-PHN, | = | 4-hydroxyphenytoin |
| OS/RM, | = | oxidative stressors/reactive metabolites |
| PCR, | = | polymerase chain reaction |
| PHN, | = | phenytoin, 5,5-diphenylhydantoin |
| PP, | = | peroxisome proliferators |
| ROS, | = | reactive oxygen species |
| Stat-3, | = | signal transducers and activators of transcription-3 |
| UDPG, | = | uridine diphosphoglucose |
| Abbreviations | ||
| AP-1, | = | activator protein 1 |
| PPARα, | = | peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α |
| ARE, | = | antioxidant response element |
| CBZ, | = | carbamazepine |
| Cp, | = | crossing point |
| GST, | = | glutathione S-transferase |
| Gapdh, | = | glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate dehydrogenase |
| HSP, | = | heat shock protein |
| IDR, | = | idiosyncratic drug reaction |
| Keap1, | = | Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 |
| MA, | = | Macrophage activators |
| NF-κ B, | = | nuclear factor κ B |
| Nrf2, | = | nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 |
| 3-OH-CBZ, | = | 3-hydroxycarbamazepine |
| 4-OH-PHN, | = | 4-hydroxyphenytoin |
| OS/RM, | = | oxidative stressors/reactive metabolites |
| PCR, | = | polymerase chain reaction |
| PHN, | = | phenytoin, 5,5-diphenylhydantoin |
| PP, | = | peroxisome proliferators |
| ROS, | = | reactive oxygen species |
| Stat-3, | = | signal transducers and activators of transcription-3 |
| UDPG, | = | uridine diphosphoglucose |