Motives for Smoking in Those With PTSD, Depression, and No Psychiatric Disorder

Abstract

Objective: Approaches for effectively treating smoking in those with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and with major depressive disorder (MDD) could be improved by identifying motivational processes underlying their tobacco dependence. The goal of this study was to identify the motivational processes influencing smoking dependence among smokers with PTSD and with MDD relative to non-diagnosed controls. Methods: Participants were United States (US) veterans who smoked daily (N = 162) and met DSM-IV criteria for either PTSD (n = 52), MDD (n = 52), or no current psychiatric disorder (controls; n = 58). Smoking dependence motives were assessed via the Brief Wisconsin Inventory for Smoking Dependence Motives (Brief WISDM). The 11 Brief WISDM subscales are categorized into two major factors: Primary Dependence Motives and Secondary Dependence Motives. Results: Smokers with PTSD scored higher than non-diagnosed controls on the following Primary Dependence Motives subscales: Automaticity, Craving, and Tolerance (all p-values <.05). Smokers with PTSD, relative to controls, also scored higher on the overall Secondary Dependence Motives subscale, and on five of the seven Secondary Dependence Motives subscales: Cue Exposure/Associative Processes, Affective Enhancement, Affiliative Attachment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Weight Control (all p-values < .05). Smokers with MDD scored significantly higher than controls on one Primary Dependence Motives subscale: Craving and on four of seven Secondary Dependence Motives subscales: Affective Enhancement, Affiliative Attachment, Cognitive Enhancement, and Weight Control (all p-values <.05). Finally, exploratory analyses directly contrasting the PTSD group with the MDD group showed that smokers with PTSD were higher than those with MDD in the overall Secondary Dependence Motives subscale and one of the seven Secondary Dependence Motives subscales: Cue Exposure/Associative Processes (all p-values < .05). Conclusions: Results suggest that both Primary Dependence Motives and Secondary Dependence Motives play a meaningful role in motivation to use tobacco in smokers with PTSD; smoking dependence in those with MDD may be primarily influenced by Secondary Dependence Motives.

Keywords:

• Brief WISDM
• major depressive disorder
• posttraumatic stress disorder
• psychiatric comorbidity
• smoking dependence motives
• tobacco

Data availability

Data are available on request from the authors. The data that support the findings of this study are available from the senior author, Jessica W. Cook, upon reasonable request.

Additional information

Funding

This research was supported by a grant from National Institutes of Health [K08DA02131] to JWC; by a VA Merit Review Award [101CX00056] to JWC from the US Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Health Administration, Office of Research and Development, Clinical Science Research and Development; and VA Advanced Fellowships to JLE and JTK from the Veterans Health Administration, Office of Academic Affiliations. The funding sources had no role in the study design, collection, analysis or interpretation of the data, writing the manuscript, or the decision to submit the paper for publication.