Church, State and RE in Europe: Past, Present and Future

Abstract

In this contribution, I will demonstrate how different kinds of RE in state schools are related to different church-state models: while non-denominational RE is common in nations characterized by “mutual independence” between the (Catholic) church and the state, non-denonminational RE is, today, more common in nations with a (former) Lutheran state church. Finally, no RE in state schools is a matter of fact in nations where state and church are separated. Given these recurring relationships between church-state models and RE, a shift from denominational to non-denominational RE is not always easy. Therefore, sometimes pragmatic alternatives come to the fore.

Keywords:

• Church and state
• RE models
• state schools

Notes

1 Oddrun Bråten, “New Social Patterns, Old Structure? How the Countries of Western Europe Deal With Religious Plurality in Education,” in Religious Education at Schools in Europe: Part 2: Western Europe, edited by Martin Rothgangel, Robert Jackson, and Martin Jäggle (Vienna: Vienna University Press, 2014), 287–313.

2 Ibid., 309.

3 Ibid.

4 ‘Governmental schools’ or state schools’ are defined by Marcel Maussen and Veit Bader, “Non-Governmental Religious Schools in Europe: Institutional Opportunities, Associational Freedoms, and Contemporary Challenges,” Comparative Education 51, no. 1 (2015): 1–21, 3 as schools “to be owed, run, and financed by (a flexible combination of) governmental (federal, state, municipal) authorities”.

5 ‘Non-governmental’ or ‘private’ schools are defined by Maussen and Bader (Ibid., 3) as schools “owned and run by [central or local] organizations or associations whether [partly or fully] publicly financed or not”.

6 For a comparative analysis of RE in Eastern Europe, see Martin Rothgangel’s contribution in this volume. See also Martin Rothgangel, Yauheniya Danilovich, and Martin Jäggle, eds., Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 4: Eastern Europe (Vienna: V&U Press, 2020) and Martin Rothgangel, Ednan Aslan, and Martin Jäggle, eds., Religious Education at Schools in Europe. Part 5: Southastern Europe (Vienna: V&U Press, 2020).

7 Denominational RE can be defined as RE that is not organized by the state, but by a particular (recognized) religious community or school. Confessional RE takes a particular religious tradition as its starting point and aims to socialize pupils into and/or from within this tradition. In most cases, denominational and non-denominational RE are respectively confessional and non-confessional, but this is not always the case.

8 In England, the situation is rather complex: although the national policy requires multi-faith RE to be provided in governmental (state-maintained) schools, the respective RE syllabuses are not established on a national level, but by the Local Education Authorities which include, amongst others, delegates of the Anglican Church and of ‘other’ religions and worldviews. In schools with a religious foundation, denominational RE is still allowed – in addition to, or as an alternative for multi-faith RE.

9 Tim Jensen, “Jensen’s Scientific Approach’ to Religion Education,” Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal 9, no. 4 (2019): 31–51, 34.

10 Robert Jackson, Signposts – Policy & Practice for Teaching about Religions & Non-Religious World Views in Intercultural Education (Strasbourg: Council of Europe, 2014), 137.

11 When talking about ‘religions’ in the context of pluralist RE, I also include secular worldviews such as humanism.

12 In Finland, separative and officially non-denominational RE is organized in the recognized religions.

13 In most nations, this school subject, which is often inspired and largely influenced by secular humanism, is organized by the state and is thus officially non-denominational. This is not the case in the Netherlands and in the Flemish Community in Belgium, where ‘non-confessional’ ethics is organized by the humanist association. Hence this school subject is also ‘denominational’ in these (sub-)nations.

14 Cf. Leni Franken and Paul Vermeer, “Deconfessionalising RE in Pillarised Education Systems: A Case Study of Belgium and The Netherlands,” British Journal of Religious Education 41, no. 3 (2019): 272–85.

15 I am very grateful to Kristian Niemi for his graphical skills and his content-related input on the map.

16 Mette Buchardt, “Cultural Protestantism and Nordic Religious Education: An Incision in the Historical Layers behind the Nordic Welfare State Model,” Nordidactica – Journal of Humanities and Social Science Education 2015, no. 2 (2015): 131–65. Available from https://journals.lub.lu.se/nordidactica/article/view/19003 (accessed September 24, 2020).

17 At that time, Norway was also a part of the Danish kingdom.

18 Mette Buchardt and Nanna Ramsing Enemark, “Education about Islam in Danish State Schools,” in Islamic Religious Education in Europe, edited by Leni Franken and Bill Gent (New York: Routledge, 2021-forthcoming); see also Jenny Berglund, “Islamic Religious Education and Education about Islam in Sweden,” in Islamic Religious Education in Europe, edited by Leni Franken and Bill Gent (New York: Routledge, 2021-forthcoming).

19 Sven Hartman, “The Development of the Swedish Educational System,” in Education in “Multicultural” Societies: Turkish and Swedish Perspectives, edited by Marie Carlsson, Annika Rabo, and Fatma Gök (Stockholm: Swedish Research Institute in Islanbul, 2007), 257–65, 260.

20 Lene Kühle, ed., “Legal Regulation of Religion in the Nordic Countries,” Special Journal Issue of Nordic Journal of Religion and Society 24, no. 2 (2011): 11–118, 115. Available from https://www.idunn.no/nordic_journal_of_religion_and_society/2011/02 (accessed April 30, 2020).

21 Ibid.

22 Freedom from religion, which is closely connected to freedom of religion, is the right not to believe and/or practice any religion. It is thus freedom from the rules and dogmas of other people’s religious beliefs, which will enable you to follow the demands of your own conscience, whether they take a religious form or not (freedom of religion).

23 Ibid.

24 Congregation for Catholic Education, “Circular Letter to the Presidents of Bishops’ Conferences on Religious Education in Schools,” (2009). Available from http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccatheduc/documents/rc_con_ccatheduc_doc_20090505_circ-insegn-relig_en.html (accessed September 24, 2020).

25 Ibid.

26 Ibid.

27 A notable exception is the region Alsace-Moselle which is, for historical reasons, still regulated by the concordat of 1801 and its organic laws of 1802–1808. Consequently, there are four recognized religions in Alsace-Moselle (Catholicism, Lutheranism, Calvinism and Judaism) and the state pays the wages of the Ministers of these religions. In governmental schools, RE in these religions is organized, and the respective teachers are paid by the state. In a comparable way, the French transoceanic territories are not governed by the French secular law of 1905.

28 Most schools in France are governmental schools, but about 25% of the French schools are non-governmental schools, often with a religious affiliation. Most of these schools have a contract with the state and are subsidized by the French state.

29 In this model, students were able to choose between Roman-catholic RE and non-denominational ethics.

30 A particular case is Finland, where both the Lutheran and the Orthodox Church are official state churches and where a model of confessional RE in these major traditions officially evolved to a pluralist, non-denominational and separative model.

31 Cf. Leni Franken, Liberal Neutrality and State Support for Religion (Zürich: Springer, 2016), Ch, 12.

32 Cf. Anna Van den Kerckhove, “Teaching about Religious Issues within the Framework of French ‘laïcité’,” in Religious Education in a Plural, Secularised Society. A Paradigm Shift, edited by Leni Franken and Patrick Loobuyck (Münster: Waxmann, 2014), 55–68; Jean-Paul Willaime, “Religious Education in French Schools,” in Religious Education at Schools in Europe: Part 2: Western Europe, edited by Martin Rothgangel, Robert Jackson, and Martin Jäggle (Vienna: Vienna University Press, 2014), 99–120; Philippe Gaudin, “Neutrality and Impartiality in Public Education: The French Investment in Philosophy, Teaching about Religions, and Moral and Civic Education,” British Journal of Religious Education 39, no. 1 (2017): 93–106.

33 For Catholic RE in for instance Austria, Belgium, Germany, Italy and Spain, teachers need to be baptized and need a church mandate in order to teach the subject.

34 Jenny Berglund, “Swedish Religion Education: Objective but Marinated in Lutheran Protestantism?,” Temenos - Nordic Journal of Comparative Religion 49, no. 2 (2014): 165–84.

35 Cf. Bengt-Ove Andreassen, “Religion Education in Norway: Tension or Harmony between Human Rights and Christian Cultural Heritage?,” Temenos - Nordic Journal of Comparative Religion 49, no. 2 (2014): 137–64.

36 Cf. Mette Buchardt, “Religious Education at Schools in Denmark,” in Religious Education at Schools in Europe, Part 3: Northern Europe, edited by Martin Rothgangel, Geir Skeie, and Martin Jäggle (Vienna: Vienna University Press, 2014), 45–74.

37 Cf. Wanda Alberts, “Religious Education as Small ‘i’ Indoctrination: How European Countries Struggle with a Secular Approach to Religion in Schools,” Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal 9, no. 4 (2019): 53–72, 67.

38 Cf. Andrea Rota, État des Lieux des Politiques de l’Enseignement Religieux en Suisse Latine. Réformes Institutionnelles et Schémas Interprétatifs (Lausanne: Infolio (Collection “CULTuREL” 6, Swiss Society for the Study of Religion), 2015); Switzerland is a ‘mixed’ nation with a church-state model varying from strict separation to mutual cooperation.

39 François Braem, “La Mise en Place du Cours Commun “Vie et Société” : Mise à Mort ou Réintégration du Facteur Religieux ? Le Cas du Grand-Duché du Luxembourg,” in Citoyenneté à l’Ecole: avec ou sans Convictions ? Approches Européennes (Etterbeek: Bepax, 2018), 61–75. Available from http://www.bepax.org/files/files/OUTILS/bepax-etude-citoyennete-769-a-768-l-e-769-cole-03.pdf (accessed September 24, 2020).

40 Pedagogically, there is for instance the concern that separating students in RE does not lead to integration, dialogue and mutual understanding. In addition, a broad focus on different worldviews rather than a narrow focus on one particular worldview, is often considered more suitable in order to prepare students for a life in the present, diverse society. Besides, the current models of denominational and confessional RE are based on the idea that students should be educated and socialized in their ‘own’ religious tradition, but this is no longer evident: today, an increasing number of students does no longer belong to a particular religious tradition and accordingly, many students no longer fit into the traditional ‘religious boxes’. Merely exempting these students, without offering a valuable alternative is, from a pedagogical as well as from a legal perspective, not a satisfactory solution. Finally, the organization of multi-confessional RE raises many practical issues (e.g. finding skilled teachers; scheduling the classes).

41 Bråten, “New Social Patterns, Old Structure?,” in Religious Education at Schools in Europe: Part 2, 309.

42 Leni Franken, “Coping with Diversity in Religious Education: An Overview,” Journal of Beliefs & Values 38, no. 1 (2017): 105–20.

43 Cf. Monique C. H. Van Dijk-Groeneboer, “Religious Education in the Secularised Netherlands,” International Studies in Catholic Education 9, no. 1 (2017): 17–28.

44 E. T. Alii, Godsdienstpedagogiek. Dimensies en spanningsvelden (Zoetermeer: Meinema, 2009), 177; Franken and Vermeer, “Deconfessionalising RE in Pillarised Education Systems.”

45 Bråten, “New Social Patterns, Old Structure?,” in Religious Education at Schools in Europe: Part 2, 302.

46 Cf. core aim (kerndoel) 43 of the Dutch secondary schools at https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/documenten/besluiten/2010/09/17/kerndoelen-onderbouw-voortgezet-onderwijs (accessed 2020-09-24).

47 Marieke Beemsterboer, “Geloven in Onderwijs. Het kennisgebied geestelijke stromingen in het Nederlands basisonderwijs,” Tijdschrift voor Religie, Recht en Beleid 2, no. 3 (2011): 17–30.

48 Markus Altena Davidsen, Jeanette den Ouden, Taco Visser, and Marleen Lammers, “Religie en Levensbeschouwing: Rationale voor een Kerncurriculum vo,” Narthex 17, no. 1 (2017): 17–26; Davidsen, Markus Altena , "Voorstel basiscurriculum Levensbeschouwing en Religie,Narthex 20, no.4 (2020): 15-26.

49 This paragraph is a summary of Leni Franken and Johan Lievens, “The End of the Opt-Out Era in Belgian Governmental Schools?,” British Journal of Religious Education (2021-forthcoming), wherein a profound elaboration of the Belgian Constitutional context and its limits can be found.

50 Belgium is a federal state, wherein education is autonomously organized by the French, German and Flemish Communities.

51 Since 1993, non-confessional ethics is in the Flemish Community no longer organized by the state, but by the recognized humanists. This made the possibility of exemption all the more opportune.

52 Available from: https://www.vlaanderen.be/publicaties/regeerakkoord-van-de-vlaamse-regering-2019-2024 (accessed July 9, 2020).

53 Belgian Official Journal, 09-12-2015. § 3 (emphasis added).

54 Since 2008, the introduction of such a school subject called LEF (Levensbeschouwing, ethiek, filosofie [Life views, Ethics, Philosophy]) is a largely discussed topic in Flanders (Leni Franken and Patrick Loobuyck, “Integrative RE in Flanders: A Decade Later,” British Journal of Religious Education (2020): 1–11; also Patrick Loobuyck and Leni Franken, “Towards Integrative Religious Education in Belgium and Flanders: Challenges and Opportunities,” British Journal of Religious Education 33, no. 1 (2011): 17–30; Leni Franken and Patrick Loobuyck, “The Future of Religious Education on the Flemish School Curriculum: A Plea for Integrative Religious Education for All,” Religious Education 108, no. 5 (2013): 482–98; Leni Franken, “Ethics and Religious Culture: An Inspiring Example for Religious Education in Flanders?,” Journal of Religious Education 67, no. 1 (2019): 41–59), but also among politicians and in the media. The introduction of such an integrative subject in governmental schools as a substitute of the present RE subjects requires a constitutional amendment. However, while in 2019, a majority in the parliament voted for a possible revision of art.24 of the constitution, this openness for profound constitutional changes was blocked (with an ex ex aequo of 23 votes for and 23 against) by the Senate. Since the status quo thus remains at least for 8 years, other, ‘creative’, possibilities seem to be the only option in the short term.

55 Available from: https://www.wallonie.be/sites/default/files/2019-09/declaration_politique_regionale_2019-2024.pdf (accessed July 9, 2020).

56 Cf. Oddrun M. H. Bråten, Towards a Methodology for Comparative Studies in Religious Education (Münster: Waxmann, 2013), 44–7; Bråten, “New Social Patterns, Old Structure?,” in Religious Education at Schools in Europe: Part 2, 303–11.

57 Cf. Franken, “Coping with Diversity in Religious Education.”

58 Bråten, “New Social Patterns, Old Structure?,” in Religious Education at Schools in Europe: Part 2, 306.