Advancing Religious Freedom and Coexistence in Myanmar: Recommendations for the Next U.S. Administration

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Notes

1. While “nationalist” is not the most accurate term to describe these organizations’ outlook, it is used here in lieu of a better option. Disaggregating the “nationalist” tendencies of these groups in Myanmar is beyond the scope of this article, but suffice to say that the Burmese word a-myo, which is often translated as nationality, literally means “type of person” and in different contexts can refer to ethnic, national, or religious identities and indeed, in the Myanmar context, frequently expresses all three simultaneously as well as aspects of identity beyond these three categories.

2. These statistics on ethnicity and religion are from the CIA World Factbook [Accessed February 8, 2016. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bm.html]. However, it should be noted that demographic statistics related to ethnic and religious identity in Myanmar are bitterly contested and rely on estimations or outdated census data. A census was conducted in 2014 with technical assistance from the UNFPA, but, citing concerns about the effects on inter-communal conflict, the government has declined to release ethnic and religious aggregate data up through the present. Thus, the figures provided here should be considered estimates.

3. See, among other sources, Karen Human Rights Group (2010, 2011) and Chin Human Rights Organization (2012).

4. The Rohingya are a distinct identity group primarily found in the West of the country. They are a stateless group, not recognized as an ethnic group with legal status in the Myanmar or neighboring Bangladesh, where many reside. They face significant social prejudice, in addition to systematic legal and political persecution, and restrictions on freedom of movement. They were not allowed to vote in the 2015 elections unless they denied their identity as “Rohingya,” assuming instead the legal designation of “Bengali,” an identification many refused to adopt.

5. Activists recounted these experiences in interviews with author Hayward in Yangon in March 2015.

6. Language from the draft law is quoted from a version printed in the Myanmar Alin Daily on December 4, 2014 by the government with an invitation to the public to provide feedback. The other three laws were similarly printed in the newspaper for this purpose.

7. It should be noted that while the New Zealander, Philip Blackwood, was released in an amnesty in January 2016, his two Burmese co-defendants remained in prison.

8. MaBaTha spokespeople were careful to attribute these comments to individual monks, insisting that the organization itself did not have a stance in support of any particular party, simply in support of those parties that would protect race and religion. This may have been a disingenuous position, but it allowed MaBaTha to skirt both constitutional provisions and electoral regulations prohibiting the use or abuse of religion in politics.

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Notes on contributors

Susan Hayward

Susan Hayward is Director of Religion and Inclusive Societies at the U.S. Institute of Peace, where she coordinates the Institute’s efforts engaging religious actors and factors to advance sustainable peace. She has published widely on issues such as interfaith engagement in the midst of political violence, political Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Myanmar, and the role of religion in hampering and propelling women’s work for peace. She is currently pursuing her doctorate in theology from Georgetown University, focusing on Christian and Buddhist responses to authoritarianism and violence in Myanmar.

Matthew J. Walton

Matthew J. Walton is the Aung San Suu Kyi Senior Research Fellow in Modern Burmese Studies at St Antony’s College, University of Oxford. His research focuses on religion and politics in Southeast Asia, with a special emphasis on Buddhism in Myanmar. Matt’s current book manuscript explores Burmese Buddhist political thought and its influence on Myanmar’s political transition. He has published articles in leading academic journals on Buddhism, ethnicity, and politics in Myanmar.