Salafizing Hanafiyya? Madrasa Teachers in Afghanistan, State Actors, and Salafis

Abstract

This article investigates the Saudi-financed Salafi intervention in Afghanistan, focusing on its impact on the dominant Hanafi legal tradition and the rejection of Salafized madrasa curriculum reforms by Hanafi scholars. It explores the involvement of foreign actors in supporting reform-oriented Salafis to prevent radical elements from gaining political power. The study delves into theological differences between Salafis and Sufis, their interpretation of tawhid, and their incorporation of Western political concepts. Additionally, it highlights the tensions between the Hanafi legal framework and the proposed Salafi curriculum, revealing the intricate dynamics of Islamic normativity.

Keywords:

• Hanafis
• Salafis
• Afghanistan
• madrasa
• dars-e nizami
• reform
• Islamic education

Notes

1 In Pakistan, there is an estimated population of 15–20 million Pashtuns, excluding Afghan refugees, compared to approximately 10–12 million Afghan Pashtuns. These figures are based on historical data, although current statistics may vary due to factors such as migration and population changes.

2 Regarding the Jordanian partners, the available data does not specify whether they were members of the Qur’an and Sunna Society, a cultural non-governmental organization established in 1993. The Qur’an and Sunna Society’s main focus is on promoting Salafi thought through activities such as lectures, small publications, and seminars. For more information on this organization, see Wiktorowicz’s book from 2000, specifically page 227.

3 Previously, the conference’s conclusions were accessible on the Islamic University of Afghanistan’s website at the URL provided: http://www.afghanjamiya.org/en/standalone-pages/religious-madrassahs-in-the-modern-age.php. However, as of the accessed date of July 13, 2011, it appears that the content is no longer available.

4 It is important to consider that the United States has supported various groups in different regions, considering regional politics and broader US objectives. Their support does not depend on specific Islamic sects such as Hanafis, Sufis, or Salafis, as long as they promote a “peaceful version of Islam.” For a critical analysis of the US’s civilizing mission projects, Mahmood’s work from 2006 provides substantial insights.

5 During the 1990s, privatization, neo-liberalism, government job cuts, rising unemployment, weakening tribal leaders’ authority, and the emergence of dissatisfied preachers contributed to the situation mentioned. This information can be found in sources such as the International Crisis Group (2005, 5–6), as well as Hindi and El-Ghweiri (2008). The intertwining of economy and piety, or pious liberalism, has been explored in studies by Atia (2013, 135–65), Iqtidar (2017), and Rudnyckyj (2009). Salafis are known for adopting neoliberal approaches within an Islamic moral economy, as discussed in works by Speidl (2020), Cavatorta and Amghar (2020), Daher (2020), and Amin (2016).

6 In contrast to Christianity, where a process of legal singularization took place, Islam did not experience a finalization of legal authority. Instead, the principle of pluralism prevailed throughout the history of the Muslim world, leading to the emergence of multiple schools of law. Eventually, the Shi’ite and four Sunni schools of law became canonized. Extensive scholarly debates resulted in a broad and adaptable consensus to ensure a life in accordance with Islam in various aspects. This development made a central teaching institution unnecessary.

7 Taqlid refers to the practice of imitating the rulings of one or several schools of law, preferably the Hanafi School of Law in Afghanistan. Taqlid is often contrasted with ijtihad, which refers to independent reasoning. The concept of the closure of the door of ijtihad has been heavily debated, suggesting a halt in the development of Islamic law. However, examples of creative application of Islamic law to address changing social conditions (ijtihad) can be traced throughout Islamic history, as discussed in works by Hallaq (1984) and Peters (1980).

8 The draft appears to be a compilation of different statements and references, making it challenging to follow a coherent narrative. The use of multiple languages, including Dari, Persian, Pashto, and Arabic, further complicates the understanding of the text. Of some 300 pages. Additionally, the headings and organization of the information are unclear and sometimes contradictory. The mentioned curricula for social and natural sciences and mathematics attached to the madrasa reform proposal are described as separate texts, both in terms of style, content, and semantics. They utilize highly specialized jargon that may be difficult for non-experts to comprehend. Furthermore, there are indications of copy-and-paste sections within these curricula.

9 Ideally speaking, Salafis prioritize a homogeneous appearance, the rejection of perceived un-Islamic innovations (bid‘a), the denunciation of any deviation from their understanding of monotheism (tawhid), excommunication (takfir) both openly and covertly, diligent propagation of what they consider true Islam (da‘wa) to people of different faiths, and loyalty to like-minded individuals while breaking off contact with people from other faiths (al-wara‘ wa-l-bara‘).

10 For the doctrinal debate on irjāʾ, which accepts anyone who professes faith as a Muslim regardless of their deeds, Lav (2012), van Ess (1992, Vol. 2:534–44), and Watt and Marmura (1985, 116–44) provide further insights.

11 “These distinctions are classical, clearly reverting to Roman categories of conquest which distinguished between an Ager Romanus (‘House of Islam’), Ager Hostis (‘House of War’) and the Foederati (‘House of Truce’).” Wink 1990, 197.

12 24:4–5: “And those who accuse chaste women and then do not produce four witnesses - lash them with eighty lashes and do not accept from them testimony ever after. And those are defiantly disobedient, Except for those who repent thereafter and reform, for indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.”

13 23:24: “Indeed, those who [falsely] accuse chaste, unaware and believing women are cursed in this world and the Hereafter; and they will have a great punishment.” Compare Nasalski 2006, 181–240, 186.

14 By the end of the third century Hijri (9th century CE), various compilations of hadiths emerged in the Muslim world. The momentum to compile such works continued, with each compilation serving a specific purpose. One notable compilation is Masabih al-Sunnah by al-Baghawi (d. 561 / 1122), which contains around 4,500 hadiths. Al-Baghawi included hadiths that could guide Muslims in matters where the Holy Qur’an does not provide explicit guidance and organized the hadiths in a detailed manner.

15 Another prominent hadith scholar, Abu ‘Abd Allah al-Tabrizi (d. 743/1342), made a significant literary contribution with his work Mishkat al-Masabih. Based on al-Baghawi’s Mashabih al-Sunna, al-Tabrizi reorganized the content and added approximately 1,500 more hadiths, increasing the total count to nearly 6,000.

16 Mubarakpuri’s book includes a foreword by the Secretary General of Rabitah al-’Alam al-Islami (World Muslim League). It is also available in various European languages and can be found in Muslim bookshops in cities such as Paris, Berlin, and London.

17 Regarding the prominence of contemporary Syrian authors in the Guidelines, such as Hawwa, who opposed the Baath regime, and Buti, who served as an Islamic caution to the Baath regime, there is, unfortunately, no explanation available to clarify why these authors feature prominently in the Guidelines. Further context or information would be needed to provide a more accurate understanding of their inclusion.

18 The term “per capita tax” refers to a tax imposed on a specific group of non-Muslim citizens within an Islamic state who meet certain criteria. This tax is often seen as discriminatory in nature.

19 Discriminatory hadiths, similar to those mentioned, are frequently featured on Islamist websites such as “The Salafi Manhaj” (The Salafi syllabus). These websites often promote and propagate specific interpretations of Islamic teachings.

20 First used and proposed by the Malaysian scholar Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas in 1978.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Jamal Malik

Jamal Malik, Heidelberg PhD graduate (1989) and post-doctoral scholar from Bamberg (1994), taught Islamic Studies at Erfurt University (1999-2022). A member of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts and Fellow of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, his research focuses on Islam in South Asia and European Muslims. Noteworthy publications cover Islamic education, religious pluralism, dialogue, Sufism, and religious mobilization. He co-edited Sufism East and West (Brill 2019) and Culture of Da’wa (Utah University Press 2020). His latest monograph is the revised and updated Islam in South Asia (Brill 2020).