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Abstract
One of the most important responses to the decentralization process around the developing world over recent decades has been the call for community-based and participatory-based approaches to planning at the local level. Unfortunately, the results of these programs have often been disappointing, leading some scholars to call for more in-depth exploration of whether community participation can improve prospects for development. This paper explores the somewhat remarkable improvement in individuals’ access to water in a low-income, indigenous community in one of the poorest states of Mexico, Oaxaca. The case study compares the community to others in Oaxaca and finds that the main distinguishing characteristic of the community is its history of collective action. The results suggest that the community’s progress in the decentralized period is due to this advantage.
Notes
17 See for example, Fox, Citation2007 and Eisenstadt, Citation2007 who argue that these systems are far from inclusive to all members of the community, as often women, young people, and communities not living in the center of municipalities have been excluded from participating in assemblies and voting. In addition, the lack of transparency of rules and their discretionary changes have often benefited those holding power.
1. The Federal Waters Law of 1972 concentrated into one piece of legislation all existing laws and regulations related to water, including all aspects related to the drinking water network. This law stated that the federal government was in charge of the planning, execution, and operation of infrastructure for drinking water.
2. Federal financing depends on the level of marginalization of the municipality, for details see page 54 of Diario Oficial Citation(1999).
3. One key aspect of the rules of operation of 2003 is the emphasis on each level of government financing (as opposed to the centralization period). The 2003 rules of operation state that in those municipal governments that do not contribute their share in projects, federal resources will be reallocated to other states (Diario Oficial, Citation2003).
4. In the Villa Alta District the average share of municipal population that speaks an indigenous language is 88%, whereas that for the entire state is 40%.
5. Figure shows the evolution of general federal transfers that are not specific to a particular spending sector, or participaciones.
6. Phone Interview, Dr Jorge Hernández, 10 June 2010.
7. This section is based on Beltrán Morales (Citation1982) as well as information from various interviews conducted in the town in the summer 2010, including the Maestro Pedro Ríos Hernandez, Samuel Terezo, and Flavio Robles.
8. The lack of economic opportunities gave rise to migration from the town, which started during the 1940s when people migrated to Oaxaca City, then Mexico City, and later on to Los Angeles, California. The first migrant association of the town was created in 1951 in Mexico City (called La Union Fraternal Zoogochense), and the association in Los Angeles was created in 1969 (called La Union Social Zoogochense). The contributions of the migrant associations have been a crucial aspect of the capacity to carry on the development projects of the town.
9. The response in 1963 of the Papaloapan Commission was the consequence of the efforts of many SBZ authorities that had requested the services before. In 1963, Felipe Robles and Teacher Román Cervantes y Cristóbal were advised on how to do the paper work to initiate the water project. Phone interview Prof. Claudio Ríos, Municipal President 2011.
10. Archivo Histórico del Agua, Fondo Documental de la Comisión del Papaloapan, Caja 92, Expediente 1201. Memoria descriptiva de las obras de introducción de agua potable al pueblo Zoogocho.
11. Based on the personal record of Flavio Robles.
12. Interview with Salomón Ríos Guzmán, Municipal President in 2009 and who had a low-level cargo of duty in 1963.
13. Several of the interviewees had been part of these efforts at least once; for example, Eduardo Santibañez.
14. Interview with Salomón Ríos Gúzman, 10 August 2010. The municipal president was expecting people from the office of health sector from Tlacolula on 16 August 2010.
15. It is important to note that this paper does not state that migration has not been a burden to the community itself. The fact that people have to migrate in search of economic opportunities represents itself a huge cost for individuals and the community. For example, Ramos Pioquinto (Citation1991, Citation2008) argues that migration challenges the Cargo system. Thus, it is important to not underestimate the costs of migration. Also, Ove Trans describes the sacrifices of the migrants, Trans (Citation2009).
16. Interview with Prof. Donato Ramos Pioquinto in Oaxaca City, 9 August 2010. Dr Donato was Municipal President in 2009.