Conceptualizing Environmental Refugees in Education: A Transformative Language-Learning Framework

Abstract

Environmental refugees are increasing worldwide. Consequently, a theoretical framework is necessary for conceptualizing them in education. This article breaks new ground by providing such a framework in education, in general, and bilingual–bicultural education, in particular. The framework is grounded in O'Sullivan's (1999, 2002) transformative learning theory and Goulah's (e.g., 2006, 2007a, 2007b, 2008, 2009a, 2009b, in press) applications of it to language education, and it conceptualizes environmental refugees' sociocultural and sociopolitical experiences with a focus on maintaining their native languages and cultural practices and empowering them in their relocated areas. This article also presents the cultivation of planetary spatial literacies as an example in praxis of the proposed transformative bilingual–bicultural approach based on the framework. This approach is offered not only as a means of maintaining environmental refugees' native languages and cultural practices, but also as a means of preparing them and their native English-speaking, non-environmental refugee peers for “green-collar” jobs.

Notes

¹The themes in this article have come into even sharper focus as the earthquake in Haiti has affected millions and forced thousands from their homes, many of whom are relocating to the United States. However, even before the tragic earthquake in Haiti, one reviewer questioned whether instruction in Indigenous Haitian languages and cultures was really warranted with respect to teaching Haitians for contemporary “green” needs. In a 2009 speech in New York, Noam Chomsky (2009) explicated this issue, arguing that Wilsonian market-based policies (which have continued through current administrations) oppressed Haitians and forced them to forego their Indigenous agrarian practices for U.S.-like ones, which dramatically and negatively transformed the country from one rich in associated resources to one scarce in them. Such arguments undergird my argument. We must rediscover the original Haitian practices, as well as those of other Indigenous peoples, through a positively transformative approach. I think focusing on these deep cultural norms in areas where Haitians are students in U.S. classes empowers them in the school and affirms their identities.

² Cornisbee and Simms (2003) reported that the biggest recipient of environmental refugees is Iran, which may have implications for U.S. national security and cultivation of anti-American sentiment among refugees.