Ethnicity, Religion, and Academic Preparedness: A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Supplementary Secular Schools and Nonsecular Church-Affiliated Schools

Abstract

Little academic attention has been given to the supplementary education experience of immigrant students in the Canadian research literature, especially in a non-English speaking context such as Quebec. Yet these schools are important for understanding the influence of ethnicity as well as religion on the academic preparedness and social integration of immigrant/minority students in the public school system. From a comparative perspective, this study explores the role that secular Chinese language schools and nonsecular, church-affiliated schools play in responding to the educational needs of Chinese youth in the public schools. Data were collected through ethnographical observation in the two school contexts, as well as through in-depth interviews with Chinese immigrant students, their parents, school personnel, and church ministers. Through a Foucauldian analysis of discourse, the author found that attendance at Chinese supplementary schools benefitted these students’ academic preparedness in a variety of ways, such as the reinforcement and development of ethnic identity. In secular Chinese language schools, ethnicity seems to function through the interaction of cultural attributes and social ethnic structures, whereas in church-affiliated, nonsecular schools, the influence of ethnicity seems to shift to the impact of Christian discipleship. Through this process, church schools actually act as socializing agents that facilitate positive interpersonal relationships among peers and families.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is grateful to Marie McAndrew and Sarah Braeye for their helpful suggestions on an early version of this article. She also thanks Bruce A. Collet for his insightful comments on this text.

Notes

1. ¹Examples of structural factors are: social class status, labor market conditions, residential patterns, racial/ethnic stratification, immigration selectivity, and so on. (Zhou & Kim, 2006).

2. ²In the current study, Chinese supplementary school is a general term for both secular Chinese schools and nonsecular, church-affiliated schools.

3. ³In fact, today, there are few Cantonese-based schools in Montreal because of the increased number of immigrants from Mainland China, though some (fewer than 5 schools) of the Mandarin-based schools still offer Cantonese classes.

4. ⁴According to the 2006 Census, most Chinese Canadians (81.8%), could converse in English, whereas only 2.2% could converse in French.

5. ⁵From 1855 to the 1950s, Chinese immigrants experienced an era of discrimination. During this period, the government of Canada passed two immigration laws and a “head tax” system to restrict and regulate Chinese immigration (Li & Lee, 2005).

6. ⁶http://www.cn411.ca, http://www.mtl163.com, and http://www.xosearch.com

7. ⁷The census of Canada has included on the detailed (long form) questionnaire a question about religious denomination every 10 years.

8. ⁸Ephesians 6:4 And, ye fathers, provoke not your children to wrath: but bring them up in the nurture and admonition of the Lord (American Standard Version).

9. ⁹Ephesians 6:1-2 (American Standard Version).

10. ¹⁰Because most Chinese have English as their second language, it might be easier for them to communicate in English.

11. ¹¹CEGEP is an acronym for Collège d’enseignement général et professionnel, known officially in English as a “General and Vocational College.” It refers to the public post-secondary education collegiate institutions exclusive to the education system in the province of Quebec. Although they may occasionally be compared to junior colleges, CEGEPs differ in that a Diploma of College Studies (or Diplôme d’études collégiales, DEC) is required for university admission in Quebec unless a student enters as a mature student, which typically means a minimum age of 21 with other requirements (http://www.mels.gouv.qc.ca).

12. ¹²Luke 20:25 (Amercian Standard Version)

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Ming Sun

Ming Sun is currently a PhD candidate at Université de Montréal. Her research areas include immigration, integration, minority education, and ethnic relations.