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ABSTRACT
Many studies have been conducted on police use of force. However, relatively few have examined the most common type of force used by the police: physical force. In this study, we analyze use of force data collected in the US to: (1) describe and predict the circumstances in which physical force is used, (2) assess the effectiveness of it, and (3) examine the hazards associated with its use. Results show that physical force is most likely to be used in situations marked by lower levels of subject resistance. This explains both its frequent use and its effectiveness at incapacitating resistant subjects. However, physical force is also most likely to result in officer and subject injuries, which is problematic. Our findings highlight the relevance of de-escalation techniques in use of force situations.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes
1. For brevity’s sake, we use the term ‘physical force’ to describe weaponless physical force, the use of the officer’s body (e.g., arms, feet) to overcome subject resistance. Physical force includes tactics such as decentralizations, vertical stuns, and focused strikes. The study department uses the term bodily force to describe force of this type, but this is not common parlance, so we use the term ‘physical force’ in its place.
2. Most countries have laws and policies to guide officers’ decision making in use of force situations. In the US, UK, and Australia, for instance, physical force is located at or near the lower end of force continua.
3. Four studies have examined the effectiveness of OC spray and TASERs. On average, these studies showed that OC spray was effective at subduing subjects 77% of the time (73 + 85 + 76 + 74/4 = 77%; Adang et al., Citation2006; Brandl & Stroshine, Citation2017; Kaminski et al., Citation1999; Morabito & Doerner, Citation1997). TASERs are estimated to be effective about 78% of the time (85 + 78 + 60 + 90/4 = 78%; Brandl & Stroshine, Citation2017; Mesloh et al., Citation2008; White & Ready, Citation2007, Citation2010).
4. Approximately one-half of all physical force incidents involved a decentralization of the subject only, otherwise no other forms of physical force were common: 8% involved a decentralization and focused strikes, 6% involved focused strikes and ground stabilization, and 5% involved focused strikes only. The remaining cases involved other combinations of physical force. In no instances were diffused strikes used.
5. One limitation of our measure of effectiveness is that the measure is unable to differentiate effective force from excessive force. In other words, whether the force used was just enough to induce subject compliance or more than lawfully necessary is a judgment that cannot be made with the data presented here.
6. We also measured subject injury including puncture wounds, eye irritation, and respiratory irritation as a result of TASER or OC spray use. Using this more liberal definition of injury, the subject injury rate increased from 50% to 62%.
7. We also conducted separate logistic regression analyses using an expanded definition of injury (where puncture wounds, eye/respiratory irritation were included; results not tabled). These analyses revealed only one significant predictor of subject injury: physical force only. The use of physical force by itself made the likelihood of subject injury 9 times less likely than when physical force was used in combination with other forms of force.
8. It should be noted that the deterrence value of the display and threatened use of TASERs is not well established (although in a related study, Adang et al. (Citation2006) found warnings prior to deployment reduced the effectiveness of OC spray).
9. As an example, American police are now experimenting with the Bolawrap, an 8-foot Kevlar tether which can be shot at a range of up to 25 feet. It is a nonlethal restraint system that is recommended for use with unruly or uncooperative subjects (Carbone, Citation2018).
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Meghan S. Stroshine
Meghan S. Stroshine, is an associate professor at Marquette University. Her research focuses on police behavior, patrol practices, and police-citizen relationships.
Steven G. Brandl
Steven G. Brandl, is a professor in the Department of Criminal Justice at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. He is the author of Police in America (Sage) and Criminal Investigation (Sage). His current research focuses on police use of force and police vehicle crashes.