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Abstract
This article explores the origins and early development of China’s Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) service, using data released officially since the mid-1980s. Born from revolutionary crisis in the late 1920s, the Red Army’s SIGINT service was founded in 1931, an offshoot of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)’s development of wireless communications. Though the USSR provided some training assistance, the formative early development of the service relied more on indigenous resources: the training of teenage novices in underground facilities in Shanghai and the Central Soviet and the use of equipment that was self-made, illicitly procured or seized on the battlefield. In the years that followed, Red Army SIGINT – much respected by CCP/Red Army leaders – survived defections and cryptographic obstacles to play a major role in the defence of the Central Soviet against Guomindang encirclement. As military defeat became inevitable, SIGINT also helped to facilitate the successful Red Army retreat that became the historic Long March.
Acknowledgements
The author acknowledges with thanks comments by Roger Hamilton and the bibliographic assistance provided by Nancy Hearst and Warren Sun.
Notes
1 For examples, see Mark A. Stokes, Jenny Lin, and L. C. Russell Hsiao, The Chinese People’s Liberation Army Signals Intelligence and Cyber Reconnaissance Infrastructure (Arlington: Project 2049 Institute, 2011) and Tobias Feakin, Enter the Dragon: Understanding Chinese Intelligence Agencies’ Cyber Capabilities (Canberra: Australian Strategic Policy Institute, 2013).
2 David Chambers, “Edging in from the Cold: The Past and Present State of Chinese Intelligence Historiography,” Studies in Intelligence 56, no. 3 (2012): 31–46.
3 Sun Guoda, “Mao Zedong yundong zhan de qingbao xiaoxi sixiang yanjiu” [A study of Mao Zedong thought on intelligence information in Wars of Movement], Junshi Lishi Yanjiu [Military history research] 1 (2005): 28 and Zhong Yaoyun, “Junwei Er Ju Chang Zheng lushang de ‘denglong’” [The Military Commission 2nd Bureau: ‘Lantern’ on the Long March], Tong Zhou Gong Jin 11 (2006), http://www.xzbu.com/1/view-272788.htm (accessed July 28, 2012).
4 Ye Bingnan, “Qian Zhuangfei,” Zhong Gong Dangshi Renwu Zhuan [Biographies of personalities in CCP History, hereafter ZGDRZ] 34 (1987): 123–4.
5 Ye Mingxiang and Chen Guoqiu, “Bange shiji de xumi” [The half-century search], in Wuming Yingxiong Cai Wei [Anonymous hero Cai Wei, hereafter WYCW], ed. Ye Mingxiang and Chen Guoqiu (Fuzhou: Fujian Renmin Chubanshe, 2006), 135–46.
6 Zeng Xiaohong, “Wode fubei Zeng Xisheng” [My father Zeng Xisheng], Xinmin Wanbao, http://sh.xinmin.cn/minsheng/2009/09/14/2561104_3.html (accessed July 24, 2012).
7 “Zhejiang ‘Wenge’ jishi (1966.5–1976.10)” [Record of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ in Zhejiang (May 1966–October 1976)], Zhejiang Fangzhi, February 1989, http://www.difangwenge.org/simple/?t3406.html (accessed June 24, 2013) and “Cao Xiangren zuixing leilei” [The countless crimes of Cao Xiangren], Dong Fang Hong, Red Guard tabloid published by Hangzhou University Propaganda Department East is Red Battle Corps, March 5, 1967.
8 Zeng Xisheng Zhuan Bianzuan Weiyuanhui, Zeng Xisheng Zhuan [Biography of Zeng Xisheng, hereafter ZXZ] (Beijing: Zhong Gong Dangshi Chubanshe, 2004).
9 Donald W. Klein and Ann B. Clark, Biographic Dictionary of Chinese Communism 1921–1965 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965) I, 38–43.
10 Chang Kuo-t’ao, The Rise of the Chinese Communist Party 1928–1938: The Autobiography of Chang Kuo-t’ao (Lawrence: Kansas University Press, 1972) quoted in Gan Feng, “Guanyu Cai Wei de ling yixie jilu” [Some further memories of Cai Wei], WYCW, 203.
11 “Song Kanfu, Wang Zigang deng liuwei lao tongzhi zhi Li Xian Nian Zhuxi bing Xu Xiangqian Yuanshi de xin” [Letter from Song Kanfu, Wang Zigang and four other old comrades to President Li Xiannian and Marshal Xu Xiangqian], August 20, 1985, WYCW, 219–24.
12 See the redacted version of “Hong Si Fang Jun jizhen gongzuo lao tongzhi zuotanhui huiyi jiyao (zhaiyao)” [Record of the old comrades discussion meeting on Red 4th Front Army technical surveillance work (Summary) 1986], ibid., 207–12.
13 Xue Yu, “Guanyu Zhong Gong Zhongyang Teke ruogan wenti de tantao” [An investigation into certain issues regarding the CCP Central Committee special section], Zhong Gong Dangshi Yanjiu [CCP History Research, hereafter ZGDSY] 3 (1999), http://cpc.people.com.cn/GB/218984/218997/219021/14817920.html (accessed September 10, 2011).
14 ZXZ, 45.
15 See memoirs by Mao Qihua and Tu Zuochao in Zhongguo Renmin Jiefang Jun Canmou Bu Tongxin Bu Bianyan Shi, Hong jun de er mu yu shenjing: tudi geming zhanzheng shiqi tongxin bing hui yi lu [Ears, eyes and nerves of the Red Army – Memoirs of the communications army in the Agrarian Revolutionary War, hereafter HJEM] (Beijing: Zhong Gong Dangshi Chubanshe, 1991), 14–16, 31–3.
16 Harrison Salisbury’s assertion in The Long March: The Untold Story (London: Macmillan, 1985), 63–4 that the USSR trained CCP cadres in cryptography is firmly rebutted by Wu Xing (a retired senior military communications specialist) in “Dui Zhong Gong wuxiandian jishu zhencha shi zhong yixie wenti de tanjiu” [An enquiry into some issues in the history of CCP wireless technical reconnaissance], ZGDSY 1 (2010): 58–9.
17 Li Qiang had assisted SSS assassination and bombing operations; Zhang had been a Party branch secretary in Shanghai’s French Concession. For memoirs, see Li Qiang, “Wode Geming licheng” [My revolutionary career], Zhong Gong Dang Shi Ziliao [CCP Party History Materials] 49 (1994): 1–10 and Zhang Shenchuan, “’Dixia’ wuxiandian bo” [‘Underground’ radio waves], HJEM 1–5: 6–13. For secondary biographies, Zi Ding, Li Qiang Zhuan [Biography of Li Qiang] (Beijing: Renmin Chubanshe, 2004) and the compendium “Zhang Shenchuan – Zhong Gong wuxiandian shiye diyiren” [Zhang Shenchuan – pioneer of CCP radio enterprises], http://wenku.baidu.com/view/43bc437831b765ce050814ab.html (accessed August 23, 2012).
18 Zi Ding, Li Qiang Zhuan, 48–69.
19 “Zhang Shenchuan Zhong Gong wuxiandian shiye diyi ren”; Zi Ding, Li Qiang Zhuan, 48–65; and Chen Ansheng, “Wo Dang dixia diantai de chuangshiren – Li Qiang” [Li Qiang – creator of our Party’s underground radio stations], Zhonghua Hun 12 (2005), http://globalview.cn/ReadNews.asp?NewsID=6688 (accessed August 23, 2012).
20 Kai Cheng, Li Kenong: Zhong Gong yinbi zhanxian de zhuoyue lingdaoren [Li Kenong – outstanding CCP leader on the hidden front] (Beijing: Zhongguo Youyi Chubanshe, 1997), 23.
21 See Frederic Wakeman, Policing Shanghai 1927–1937 (Berkeley: California University Press, 1995), 151–60 and Huang Zhongyuan, “Gu Shunzhang” ZGDRZ 80, http://www.hprc.org.cn/gsw/detail_zgdsrwz.jsp?channelid=75027&record=941 (accessed November 16, 2011) on the circumstances and consequences of Gu’s arrest.
22 On political-military developments during this period, see Tony Saich, The Rise to Power of the Chinese Communist Party: Documents and Analysis (Armonk: M E Sharpe, 1996), 277–90, 509–24.
23 Zhu De, “Xuandiao xuesheng wuxiandian de mingling” [Order on the recruitment of radio students], 28 January 1931 in Zhu De Junshi Wenxuan [Selected articles by Zhu De on military affairs] (Beijing: Jiefangjun Chubanshe, 1997), 41–2; ZXZ, 28–30; Lu Zhiyu et al., Wang Zheng Zhuan [Biography of Wang Zheng] (Beijing: Dianzi Gongye Chubanshe, 1998), 26–28; and “Hongse tongxin xilie baodao zhi er – ‘Hongse Dianbo’” [Report on the Red signals system Pt. 2 – ‘Red Telegrams’], http://yxj.miit.gov.cn/n11293472/n11293877/n13868471/n13894686/n13894730/13895223.html (accessed April 23, 2013).
24 Zhong Gong Zhongyang Wenxian Yanjiu Shi, Mao Zedong Nianpu Yibajiusan-Yijiusijiu [Chronicle of the life of Mao Zedong 1893–1949 hereafter Mao Nianpu] (Beijing: Zhongyang Wenxian Chubanshe, 1993) I, 333; Wang Zheng, “Cong banbu diantai kaishi” [Beginning from half a transceiver], HJEM, 51–6; Lu Zhiyu et al., Wang Zheng Zhuan, 26–8; and ZXZ, 48–9.
25 Lu Zhiyu et al., Wang Zheng Zhuan, 21; Zhu De and Mao Zedong, “Red Letter Order No. 12 of the First Front Army of the Red Army to attack the forces of Zhang Huizan at Longgan,” 29 December 1930 in Stuart R. Schram and Nancy J. Hodes, Mao’s Road to Power: Revolutionary Writings 1912–1949 (Armonk: M E Sharpe, 1995), III, 730; and “Order to attack Tan Daoyuan” 1 January 1931 in Stuart R. Schram, Nancy J. Hodes and Stephen J. Averill, Mao’s Road to Power: Revolutionary Writings 1912–1949, IV (Armonk: M E Sharpe, 1997), 6.
26 Mao Nianpu, 332; Wang Zheng, “Cong banbu”; and Lu Zhiyu et al., Wang Zheng Zhuan, 23–4.
27 Lu Zhiyu et al., Wang Zheng Zhuan, 20–37; on the impenetrability of CCP codes as at 1933, Yang Kuisong, Guomindang de ‘Lian Gong’ yu ‘Fan Gong’ [The Guomindang’s ‘Unity with the CCP’ and ‘Opposition to the CCP’] (Beijing: Shehui Kexue Wenxian Chubanshe, 2011), 123–4.
28 Qiu Xinmin, “Hong Jun wuxiandian tongxin shiye de chuangjian fazhan (xia)” [The foundation and development of Red Army radio signals (Pt. 2)], Minguo Chunqiu, http://img.mg1912.com/news/2011/05/09/5d670bb92f756d25012fd4bd7adc0321.html (accessed May 26, 2013).
29 Lu Zhiyu et al., Wang Zheng Zhuan, 31–3.
30 Shi Ding, “Zhongyang Suqu shiqi de Cao Xiangren” [Cao Xiangren during the Central Soviet period], Shilin (Supplementary issue, 2011): 4.
31 The following biographical detail is drawn from ZXZ, 1–48 and Xin Zhongguo Diyi Dai – Sheng (Shi, Qu) Wei Shuji, Sheng (Shi, Qu) Zhang Juan [New China’s First Generation – Provincial (Municipal, Regional) Party Secretaries and Governors] (Changsha: Hunan Renmin Chubanshe, 1999) I, 213–23.
32 Suggestions in several PRC biographies that Zeng studied in the Soviet Union during his pre-Shanghai period are not confirmed in his classified biography; he may have been confused with his elder brother Zeng Zhongsheng, who studied in the USSR in 1927–1929.
33 Su Zhenlan and Xia Mingxing, “Zeng Xisheng: yinbi zhanxian shang de chuanqi yingjie” [Zeng Xisheng: heroic pioneer on the hidden front], http://www.bjqx.org.cn/qxweb/n33022c397.aspx (accessed July 30, 2012) and “Li Minghao: Mao Zedong de chaoji tegong” [Li Minghao: Mao Zedong’s super-spy] in Ju Sheng and Zhang Bing, Mao Zedong Yu Guomindang Ren Jiaowang Lu [Record of Mao Zedong’s Guomindang contacts] (Beijing: Tuanjie Chubanshe, 2008), http://data.book.hexun.com/chapter-1765-4-20.shtml (accessed September 24, 2012).
34 Qiu Xinmin, “Hong Jun wuxiandian tongxin shiye de chuangjian fazhan (shang)” [The foundation and development of Red Army radio signals (Pt. 1)], Minguo Chunqiu, http://img.mg1912.com.news/2011/05/09/5d670bb92f756d25012fd4bb6a6f0320.html (accessed May 26, 2013) and “Jiedu Hong Jun ‘Er Ju’ ” [Understanding the Red Army ‘2nd Bureau’], http://www.ndnews.cn/ztbd/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=101091 (accessed July 2, 2012).
35 See accounts of the exchanges that followed the linking-up of the 1st and 4th Front Armies in June 1935: ZXZ, 98 and “Jiedu Hong Jun ‘Er Ju’ .”
36 “Jiedu Hong Jun ‘Er Ju’”; Qiu Xinmin, “Hong Jun wuxiandian tongxin shiye de chuangjian fazhan (shang)”; and Junshi Kexue Yuan Junshi Tushuguan, Zhongguo Renmin Jiefangjun Zuzhi Yange He Geji Lingdao Chengyuan Minglu [Directory of the Organisational Evolution and Leadership of the Chinese PLA] (Beijing: Junshi Kexue Chubanshe, 1990), various entries.
37 Ye Bingnan, “Qian Zhuangfei,” 103–13.
38 Ye Mingxiang and Chen Guoqiu, “Cai Wei Zhuanlue” [Biography of Cai Wei], WYCW, 3–18.
39 Interview with Hu Lijiao, Shanghai, May 1997.
40 Shi Ding, “Zhongyang Suqu shiqi de Cao Xiangren,” 1–14.
41 Li Zuopeng, Li Zuopeng Huiyilu [Memoirs of Li Zuopeng] (Hong Kong: Beixing Chubanshe, 2011), 1–16.
42 ZXZ, 56 and Zou Bizhao, “Dui Qian Zong Erju mima poyi gongzuo de huigu,” [A review of decoding work in 2nd Bureau front-line Headquarters] in Zhongguo Renmin Jiefangjun Lishi Ziliao Congshu Bianshen Weiyuanhui, Zongcan Moubu Huiyi Shiliao 1927–1987 [General Staff memoirs and historical materials 1927–1987] (Beijing: Jiefangjun Chubanshe, 1995 for PLA readers only), 59.
43 ZXZ, 50–1 and Su Zhenlan and Xia Mingxing, “Zeng Xisheng: yinbi zhanxian.”
44 ZXZ, 50–2.
45 ZXZ, 52–3.
46 Ibid., 54 and Shi Ding, “Zhongyang Suqu shiqi de Cao Xiangren,” 6.
47 Gu Junjie, “Hong Jun wuxiandian tongxin jishu zai tudi geming zhanzheng shiqi de lishi zuoyong” [The historical role of Red Army radio communications technology during the Agrarian Revolutionary War], Junshi Lishi Yanjiu 4 (2007): 73.
48 Hongse Zhonghua 17 July 1933 quoted in Lu Xing, “Zhongyang Suqu ‘Hong Xing Jiangzhang’ cao” [A study of the Central Soviet ‘Red Star Medal’], http://dfsc.com.cn/2009/0620/28746.html (accessed November 15, 2013) and ZXZ, 57–64.
49 Shi Ding, “Zhongyang Suqu shiqi de Cao Xiangren,” 10–11; Zou Bizhao, “Dui Qian Zong Er Ju,” 63; and “Hong Jun chuanqi yingxiong Zou Bizhao” [Legendary Red Army hero Zou Bizhao], http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_4c831fcb0100mvga.html (accessed July 30, 2012).
50 Zou Bizhao, “Dui Qian Er Ju,” 63; “Hong Jun chuanqi yingxiong;” and ZXZ, 122ff.
51 Shi Ding, “Zhongyang Suqu shiqi de Cao Xiangren,” 12–13.
52 For background, Lloyd Eastman, The Abortive Revolution: China Under Nationalist Rule 1927–1937 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), Ch. 3 and Frederick Litten, “The CCP and the Fujian rebellion” Republican China XIV: 1 (1988): 57–74.
53 Interview with Hu Lijiao.
54 Shi Ding, “Zhongyang Suqu shiqi de Cao Xiangren,” 12.
55 Zhang Jingtang and Pan Heding, “Changzheng qian yici chenggong de tanpan” [A successful negotiation before the Long March], Wenxian He Yanjiu 6 (1986): 21–3 and Wang Zengqin, “Chen Jitang wei Zhongguo Gong Nong Hong Jun Changzheng ‘Rang Dao’ zhi mi” [The riddle of Chen Jitang ‘Giving Way’ to the Chinese Worker-Peasant Red Army on the Long March], http://cpc.people.com.cn/GB/85037/8457633.html (accessed March 6, 2011).
56 Ibid.
57 On the acquisition of Chiang’s battle plan, Mo Xiong Huiyi Lu [Memoirs of Mo Xiong] (Guangzhou: Guangdong Renmin Chubanshe, 1996) Ch. 6. Quotation from Salisbury, Long March, 63.
58 Wu Xing, “Jun Wei Erju Changzheng zhong wuxiandian zhencha li qigong” [The outstanding service of the Red Army’s 2nd Bureau radio reconnaissance during the Long March], Dangshi Bolan 5 (2011), http://www.xzbu.com/1/view-311884.htm (accessed July 28, 2012).
59 Yu Zhining, “Changzheng qijian fasheng de qingbaoyuan ‘Chen Zhongshan diaodui beifu’ shijian” [The Long March incident of intelligence worker ‘Chen Zhongshan falling behind and being captured’], http://dangshi.people.com.cn/GB/17927357.html (accessed July 31, 2012).
60 Saich, Rise to Power, 655–8 and Xia Ningli, “Changzheng ‘Mi Dian’ wenti de lai long qu mai” [The full story of the Long March ‘Secret Telegrams’], Yanhuang Chunqiu 1 (2011). http://blog.tianya.cn/blogger/post_read.asp?BlogID=3484592&PostID=30666266 (accessed June 6, 2013).
61 ZXZ, 99–104; Cao Suofei, “Fuqin zai Changzheng zhong congshi mima poyi gongzuo” [My Father’s cypher decoding work on the Long March], Renmin Zhengxie Bao, August 17, 2006; and “Hong Si Fangmian Jun diantai kaimo Song Kanfu koushu Qi Te zhengli” [The beginning and end of the Red 4th Front Army’s radio stations: the oral account of Song Kanfu, presented by Qi Te], http://blog.sina.cn/s/blog_9aaa13ff0100xgci.html (accessed July 6, 2013).
62 Mao quotation “Mao Zedong zan hongse tegong Zeng Xisheng” [Mao Zedong’s praise of Red Special Agent Zeng Xisheng], http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2010-03/22/content_13219777_1.htm (accessed May 4, 2013).
63 Quoted phrases from Stephen Budiansky, “What’s the Use of Cryptologic History,” Intelligence and National Security 25, no. 6 (December 2010): 771.
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David Ian Chambers
David Chambers graduated in Government from Manchester University in 1970 and received his PhD from Bristol University in 1981. Between 1971 and 1987, he taught Chinese politics and modern history at Bristol University and served twice as Secretary of the British Association of Chinese Studies. In 1987, he joined the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, later serving as a member of Her Majesty’s Diplomatic Service in London, Hong Kong, Beijing and Bangkok. In 1998, he was Senior Research Fellow at the International Institute for Asian Studies at Leiden University.