https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3051-0370
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Abstract
The Warwick Shaffron, held in the collections of the Royal Armouries (VI.446) is the earliest extant example of a European medieval shaffron on public display anywhere in the world. In addition to its early date, the shaffron is also considered exceptional because of its seemingly formidable size, coupled with apparent physical evidence of battle damage. This study sheds new light on the Warwick Shaffron through the application of an original measurement methodology developed through the AHRC-funded ‘Warhorse Project’ and applied to shaffrons in the collections of the Royal Armouries. Drawing upon the Warhorse Project’s wider findings on medieval horse stature, this paper critically discusses what shaffrons can tell us about the size of the mounts that wore them. A headline finding is that the dimensions of the Warwick Shaffron are entirely compatible with what we know about the size range of medieval horses at the time of its manufacture, albeit towards the upper end of the range.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council, UK (AH/S000380/1). We thank Jason Kingsley and Matt Cooper for access to their jousting horses and shaffrons.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 D.D. Olsen, ‘The Visual Language of Power: The Role of Equestrian Armor in Renaissance Europe’, The American Society of Arms Collectors, 103 (2011), 2.
2 I. Eaves and T. Richardson, ‘The Warwick Shaffron’, Journal of the Arms and Armour Society, 12 (1987), 217–22.
3 V. Dillon, ‘Horse armour’, Archaeological Journal 59 (1902), 67–92.
4 C. Blair, European Armour circa 1066 to circa 1700 (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1959), chapter 10; K. DeVries and R. D. Smith, Medieval Weapons: An Illustrated History of their Impact (Santa Barbara: ABC Clio, 2007), 182–3.
5 T. Richardson, ‘Armours in the ‘Line of Kings’ in the horse armoury at the Tower’, Arms & Armour 10.2 (2013), 97–113; D. Edge and A. Williams, ‘A study of the German ‘Gothic’ 15th-century equestrian armour (A21) in the Wallace Collection, London’, Gladius 21 (2011), 223–56. On Islamic horse armour, see D. Nicolle, ‘Horse armour in the medieval Islamic Middle East’, Arabian Humanities Arabian Humanities 8 (2017) [http://journals.openedition.org/cy/3293].
6 S.W. Pyhrr, D. J. LaRocca, D. J. and D. H. Breiding, The Armored Horse in Europe, 1480–1620 (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2005).
7 P. Terjanian, The Last Knight: The Art, Armor and Ambition of Maximillian I (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2019).
8 S. James, The Excavations at Dura-Europos Conducted by Yale University and the French Academy of Inscriptions and Letters 1928 to 1937. Final Report VII, The Arms and Armour and other Military Equipment (London: The British Museum Press, 2004); A. Negin and M. Kamisheva, ‘Armour of the Cataphractarius from the “Roshava dragana” burial mound’, Archaeologia Bulgarica 22 (2018), 45–70; A. E. Negin, ‘Sarmatian Cataphracts as Prototypes for Roman Equites Cataphractarii’, Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 9 (1998), 65–76; S. Schuckelt, Evidence for Horse Armour in the Roman Army and the Use of Chamfrons by the Roman Cavalry (Unpublished Thesis: Cardiff University, 2014).
9 D. Jones and E., Herbert-Davies, ‘Evaluation of mail horse-armour’, EXARC Journal (EXARC Journal Issue 2022/1).
11 For key project publications, see R. Liddiard, ‘Wild, Wild Horses: Equine Landscapes of the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries’, inAnglo-Norman Studies: Proceedings of the Battle Conference 2021 Vol. XLIV, ed. S. D. Church (Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 2021), pp. 35–53; C. Ameen, H. Benkert, T. Fraser, R. Gordon, M. Holmes, W. Johnson, M. Lauritsen, M. Maltby, K. Rapp, T. Townend, G. P. Baker, L.M. Jones, C. Vo Van Qui, R. Webley, R. Liddiard, N. Sykes, O. H. Creighton, R. Thomas and A. K. Outram, ‘In Search of the ‘Great Horse’: A Zooarchaeological Assessment of Horses from England (AD 300–1650)’, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 31.6 (2021), 1–11; C. Ameen, G. P. Baker, H. Benkert, C. Vo Van Qui, R. Webley, R. Liddiard, A. K. Outram, O. H. Creighton, ‘Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Medieval Warhorse’, Cheiron 1 (2021), 100–19; R. Webley, ‘Appliques en «B»: réexamen d’un objet médiéval énigmatique interprété comme une garniture de mors de bride’, Cahiers LandArc 38 (2020), 1–12.
12 Another example, of a type used in tournaments and dated to the first half of the 15th century, made of leather, survives in the Museum Carolino Augusteum, Salzburg (W 347).
13 Eaves and Richardson, p. 219.
14 A potentially interesting parallel between the Warwick Shaffron and the chess piece is the way in which the main plate(s) for the head join the rear and side plate. On the Warwick Shaffron the overlapping plates have a scalloped edge. The chess piece might also be showing a similar form with its crenellated edge, demarking where the face plate(s) overlaps the back piece. The Metropolitan Museum of Art’s online catalogue for this object currently suggests that the crenellation may indicate hinges where the plate connects to other plates beneath the jaw: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/27389.
15 For a more detailed analysis of shaffrons of this group in iconography see Eaves and Richardson, p. 219.
16 It should be noted that the example from Henry V’s tomb in Westminster Abbey, dated to 1437–50, was designed prior to Henry’s death in 1422.
17 Eaves and Richardson, p. 220.
18 Eaves and Richardson, p. 219.
19 Horse armour was in use elsewhere much earlier than this, from the 3rd millennium BC in Mesopotamia, and from the 2nd millennium BC in other regions of the Middle East and Egypt, as well as by the Roman heavy cavalry. It seems to have fallen out of use in Europe from the sixth century, to be revived properly by the mid- to late twelfth century. The Armored Horse in Europe, 1480–1620, p. 8; Blair, p. 184, and Edward Impey, Treasures of the Royal Armouries: A Panoply of Arms (Leeds: Royal Armouries Museum, 2022), p. 68.
20 Blair, p. 184.
21 Phyrr et al., p. 9.
22 Armour by Pier Innocenzo da Faerno held at Historisches Museum der Stadt Wien (127.151–.153,127.157–.159). This armour consists of a metal shaffron, all-enclosing crinet, peytral and crupper, and would originally also have had flanchards for the sides.
23 Phyrr et al., p. 9.
24 There is another candidate, Thomas Beauchamp (c.1335–1401), Richard’s father. For a discussion on Thomas Beauchamp, and the argument for Richard as the more likely owner of the shaffron see Eaves and Richardson, p. 220.
25 Alexandra Sinclair, The Beauchamp Pageant (Donington: The Richard III and Yorkist Trust, 2003), 28–36.
26 British Library Cotton MS Julius E IV, article 6, Pageant XXIX. See also Sinclair, p. 31 and 109.
27 Full provenance: the shaffron is from the armoury of the Earls of Warwick, and, according to Eaves and Richardson, remained at Warwick Castle from the time of its use until about 1970. It was included in an exhibition Chaucer’s London, London Museum, in 1972. It was then sold on 26th February 1987, via Howard Ricketts Ltd., on behalf of an anonymous vendor, and purchased by the Royal Armouries. The purchase was made possible by funds raised by the Royal Armouries, the National Heritage Memorial Fund, and a private benefactor. The shaffron was included in the Royal Academy’s exhibition Age of Chivalry: Art in Plantagenet England 1200–1400 (Nov 1987–Mar 1988), and was then on permanent display at the Tower of London. The shaffron then moved up to the Royal Armouries Museum, Leeds, in 1996, and returned briefly back to the Tower for the Agincourt 600 exhibition (October 2015–Jan 2016). It is currently on display in the War Gallery at the Royal Armouries Museum in Leeds.
28 Francis Grose, A Treatise on Ancient Armour and Weapons (London: S. Hooper, 1786), p. xxvii. pl. XLII.
29 Sir William Dugdale, The Antiquaries of Warwickshire (London: J. Osborn and T. Longman, 1656), p. 344. Dugdale associates the shaffron with Guy of Warwick, a mythical Saxon hero. For further discussion on this association see Eaves and Richardson, p. 217.
30 History of Guy, Earl of Warwick, Coventry, 1829 (repr.): fig. xi; John Hewitt, Ancient Armour and Weapons in Europe, II, (London and Oxford: 1860), p. 317; J. Starkie-Gardiner, Foreign Armour in England, (London and New York: 1898), p. 48; Guy Francis Laking, A Record of European Armour and Arms, III, (London: 1920), p. 151–2, fig. 957; Sir James G., Mann, ‘Die Alten Rustkammerbestßnde auf Warwick castle’, Zeitschrift für Historische Waffen-und Kostümkunde, XIV (1936), 158–9, pl.XI2; Blair, p. 184; Helmut Nickel, ‘English Armour in the Metropolitan Museum’, Connoisseur, CLXXII (1969), p. 197; Brian Spencer, Chaucer’s London (London: Museum of London, 1972), addenda; Jonathan Alexander and Paul Binski, Age of Chivalry: Art in Plantagenet England 1200-1400 (London: Royal Academy of Arts, 1987), p. 264–5.
31 Eaves and Richardson, 217–22.
32 Impey, p. 68; The Armored Horse in Europe, 1480–1620, 11–12; Carlo Paggiarino, et al., Masterpieces of Medieval and Renaissance Arms and Armour From the National Collection, Volume 1 (Milan: Hans Prunner, 2003), 90–1, 300.
33 Eaves and Richardson, p. 217; RA inventory file for VI.446, held at Royal Armouries Museum. Leeds, note, author and date unknown.
34 For a detailed description of the shaffron see Eaves and Richardson, 217–19. It has previously been suggested that the seemingly enormous size of the Warwick Shaffron was to accommodate a thick, padded lining; see Impey, p. 68.
35 Another example of a similar form of embossing over the eyes, although not completely covering the eyes, could be interpreted from the chess piece held at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, accession number 68.85, see .
36 Eaves and Richardson, p. 219, who describe this damage as a ‘small, slightly square, puncture’ suggest this impact could have been caused by a bodkin head, and if so, could be evidence that the shaffron was used on the battlefield rather than for tournament, although they do reference Sir James Mann’s assertion that the hammerwork, being coarse, and the lightness of the metal may instead suggest tournament use. Whilst the presence of a potential bodkin head impact mark does assert that the shaffron may have been worn on the battlefield, as arrows were not known to be used in mounted tournament events, it is not sufficient evidence that the shaffron was used exclusively in this context. It may be that the shaffron was used in both tournament and battlefield contexts.
37 Whilst some of the damage to the Warwick Shaffron may be explained by possible contemporary weapons and use, it is important to note that all damage to historical arms and armour should be treated with caution. It is impossible to know for certain if damage is the result of actual battlefield or tournament blows, or if the object was damaged in some other way, either during its working life or in the centuries afterwards.
38 Pyhrr et al.
39 The principal other collections where shaffrons have been inspected and measured for the Warhorse research project are: Glasgow Museums; The Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge; The Royal Collection, Windsor Castle; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; The Wallace Collection, London; The Styrian Armoury, Graz; The Imperial Armoury, Vienna; and Wien Museum, Vienna.
40 We were kindly allowed access to the modern examples and details of the horses by Jason Kingsley and Matt Cooper. They attested that the shaffrons were made to fit these specific horses and that they were a good fit. Since Copper was still alive we witnessed the fit ourselves. At Kingsley’s stables we noted that the shaffrons made for Warlord, Segundai and Boody did not fit much larger or smaller horses in his current stock.
41 Full sets of measurements for all shaffrons examined by the project are being lodged for open access availability with the Archaeology Data Service (ADS); see https://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archives/view/1005150/.
42 Rennen is a form of jousting associated with the court of the Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian I. Rennen shaffrons tend to completely cover the horse’s eyes. Tobias Capwell, Arms and Armour of the Renaissance Joust (Leeds: Royal Armouries Museum, 2021), p. 10, 12.
43 R.H.C. Davis, The Medieval Warhorse (London: Thames and Hudson, 1989), p. 69.
46 Eaves and Richardson, p. 217.
47 Ameen et al.
48 C. Van de Pol and M. S. van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan, ‘Measuring the Height of Ponies at the Withers: Influence of Time of Day, Water and Feed Withdrawal, Weight-Carrying, Exercise and Sedation’. The Veterinary Journal, 174 (1) (2007), 69–76.
49 T. Richardson, ‘Armours in the “Line of Kings” in the horse armoury at the Tower’, Arms & Armour, 10(2), 97–113.
50 As with most armour, linings were changed throughout the objects’ working life and as such it is difficult to say for certain whether surviving linings are fully contemporary to the object. Two shaffrons in the collection at the Royal Armouries with an historical lining still attached are VI.18 (a half shaffron), and VI.375.
51 R. Beuing, ‘Detailfreude zu Pferd. Der Stechreiter der Nürnberger Patrizierfamilie Holzschuher‘, in Turnier. Wettkampf und Spiel, ed. Frank Matthias Kammel (Ausst.-Kat. München, Bayerisches Nationalmuseum, München, 2022), pp. 22–9.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Oliver H. Creighton
Oliver Creighton is Professor of Archaeology at the University of Exeter. He is a medieval specialist who has worked extensively on castles, towns, landscapes and warfare of the period.
Alan K. Outram
Alan K. Outram is Professor of Archaeological Science at the University of Exeter. He is a zooarchaeologist well known for his work on the domestication of the horse.
Eleanor Wilkinson-Keys
Eleanor Wilkinson-Keys is Assistant Curator of Arms and Armour at the Royal Armouries Museum, Leeds. She continues to study, research, and catalogue the museum’s collection of horse armour and related horse furniture.