Under the Weather: Combating the Climate in British Sport [1

 [1] For the purposes of this essay we have tended to use ‘climate’ and ‘weather’ interchangeably rather than adopt the atmospheric science distinction between short-term weather events and the longer-term climate patterns. We are grateful to the Carnegie Trust for financial assistance towards research costs.

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Abstract

Although the weather itself cannot be controlled, attempts have been made in Britain to mitigate its effects by altering rules, adopting new technology, moving indoors, and insuring against climate-related losses. These have been limited by the costs involved, both absolutely and in relation to the perceived benefits, but also by attitudes. Many sports promoters and authorities do not perceive the British weather as being extreme and tend to adopt reactive rather than pro-active policies, while spectators are often prepared to brave the elements to watch contests made more unpredictable by the intervention of the weather.

Notes

 [1] For the purposes of this essay we have tended to use ‘climate’ and ‘weather’ interchangeably rather than adopt the atmospheric science distinction between short-term weather events and the longer-term climate patterns. We are grateful to the Carnegie Trust for financial assistance towards research costs.

 [2] For bibliographies see Strauss and Orlove, Weather, Climate, Culture.

 [3] ‘Disasters’ may be real or imagined, ranging from the Fastnet tragedy to the unfortunate rain-breaks at Wimbledon 2001 that ended the men's final hopes of Tim Henman and his army of fans. ‘Freaks’ tend to be unseasonal weather events such as snow on cricket pitches in June.

 [4] See for example Perry, ‘Climatic Influences’, 197–201; Hignell, Rain Stops Play and a series of articles in the Royal Meteorological Society Magazine, Weather including ones on football (Cairns, ‘The Effect of Weather on Football Attendances’, 87–90), horseracing (Sheridan and Sweeney, ‘Weather and Horse Racing’, 48–55), marathon running (Vugts, ‘The Influence of the Weather on Marathon Running’, 102–7), and mountain activities (George, ‘Weather and Mountain Activities’, 404–10). In three decades there have been less than a dozen articles on sport and the weather, few of which have been written by academics.

 [5] Bale, ‘Racing Towards Modernity’, 223–4.

 [6] Eden, Weatherwise; Kay and Vamplew, Weatherbeaten.

 [7] Thornes, ‘The Effect of Weather on Sport’, 258–68.

 [8] Maunder, The Value of the Weather.

 [9] Apart from Cairns who demonstrated that increased rainfall will adversely affect football attendances (Cairns, ‘The Effect of Weather on Football Attendances’, 87–90), economists have produced little analysis of the impact of weather on sport. Traditionally they have argued that the likelier a result can be forecast, the lower will be aggregate attendances. For a synthesis of the literature see Borland and McDonald, ‘Demand for Sport’, 478–502 and Symanski, ‘The Economic Design of Sporting Contests’, 1137–87.

[10] Brodribb, Next Man In, 62–3.

[11] Chapman, The Rules of the Green, 78–9, 106. See also the chapter on weather in Glover, Golf, 67–76.

[12] Information supplied by Scottish Premier League.

[13] These include International Turfgrass Bulletin, International Magazine of Arena Construction and Management, Football and Stadium Management and Groundsman.

[14] Evans, Winter Games Pitches, 7.

[15] Adams, ‘Practical Aspects of Sportsfield Drainage’, 51–4.

[16] Stewart, Sports Turf, xi; Baker, ‘Soil Physical Conditions of the Root Zone Layer’, 116–22.

[17] Keepin, ‘New Sports Surfaces are Meeting Tougher Demands’, 38.

[18] Keepin, ‘New Sports Surfaces are Meeting Tougher Demands’, 38.

[19] Vamplew and Kay, Encyclopedia of British Horseracing, 12–14.

[20] Bale, ‘Racing towards Modernity’, 221.

[21] Perris, Grass Tennis Courts.

[22] Bromhead, ‘Naturally The Future is Turf’.

[23] Rennick, ‘Artificial Pitches’, 38–40.

[24] Daily Telegraph (11 Nov. 2004): S4

[25] Evans, Bowling Greens, 54.

[26] Bale, ‘Racing towards Modernity’, 223–4.

[27] Smith, ‘Curling’, 69–86.

[28] Herald [Glasgow] (19 June 2004): 14.

[29] Home Office, The Hillsborough Stadium Disaster; Inglis, Football Grounds of Britain.

[30] Calculated from data in Lee, The Course Inspector.

[31] Independent (22 April 2000): 6.

[32] Independent (7 Jan. 2004): 7.

[33] Evening Standard (5 July 2004): 95; The Times (7 July 2003): S7; Guardian (15 July 2003): S29.

[34] Westwood, ‘The Heat is On’, 6.

[35] ‘Pitch Covers’, Stadium and Arena Management (April 2001): 26.

[36] International Turfgrass Bulletin (July 2001).

[37] Turfgrass Bulletin (Oct. 2000): 6.

[38] Perris, ‘Turf Management’, 307.

[39] The Groundsman (May 2001): 20–3; Football and Stadium Management (April/May 2002): 28.

[40] The Groundsman (May 2001): 20; International Turf Bulletin (July 1997): 15; Football and Stadium Management (April/May 2004): 16.

[41] Daily Telegraph (11 Nov. 2004): S4.

[42] Football and Stadium Management (Jan. 2004).

[43] ‘Ayr Time’ Magazine of Arena Construction and Management (Winter 1996): 15; ‘The Big Freeze’, Magazine of Arena Construction and Management (June 1998): 28; ‘Nottingham's Ice Double’, Stadium and Arena Management (April 2000): 11.

[44] Daily Telegraph (4 Dec. 1998): S12.

[45] Kinder, ‘The Modern Football Pitch’, 11.

[46] Webb, ‘Field of Dreams’, 10–11.

[47] The Times (27 Dec. 1995): S8.

[48] Vamplew and Kay, Encyclopedia of British Horseracing, 12–14.

[49] Perris, ‘Is the Going Getting Better’, 23.

[50] Vamplew and Kay, Encyclopedia of British Horseracing, 12–14.

[51] Economist (14 Feb. 2004): 29.

[52] Herald [Glasgow] (19 June 2004): 14; Harrison, Winterbottom and Sheppard, ‘The Potential Effects of Climate Change on the Scottish Tourist Industry’, 207.

[53] Their websites actually list wind and gust speed first in their weather conditions rather than the temperature or whether the sun is shining. The Times (6 Dec. 2003): T5.

[54] Evening Times [Glasgow] (12 Nov. 2004): 11.

[55] ‘Preparing the Courts, Come Rain or Shine’, Stadia (May 2001): 84.

[56] Football and Stadium Management (June/July 2003): 20–1.

[57] Winter, ‘Racing into the Future’, 16.

[58] Observer (4 March 2001): S2.

[59] Daily Telegraph (9 Dec. 2004): S6.

[60] Sport Business International (April 2001): 27.

[61] The Times (13 Sept. 1997): S4.

[62] We should like to thank the 2003 MSc students in the Department of Sports Studies at the University of Stirling for their comments on unpredictability following an earlier version of this essay. As a straw poll of a cohort of persons involved in sport they were unanimously in favour of retaining the influence of the weather.

[63] If predictability of results has an influence on crowd size, then, by acting as a leveller and giving the outsider a chance, rain, wind and snow could positively affect attendances. However, there is also a quality aspect to spectator demand and, by negating the skills of talented players, bad weather might reduce the standard of an event. See references in Note 9.

[64] Wilson, ‘Back to Basics’, 139–41.

[65] Kay and Vamplew, Weatherbeaten, 113.

[66] See, for example, the comments on how weather tests character as well as skill in Farrell, The Open Championship 1999, 22, 51.

[67] Stott, ‘You Can't Control the Climate’, 25. For a non-scientific summary of the conflicting views see ‘It Might Even Get Hotter’, Daily Telegraph (20 Aug. 2003): 14.

[68] Kay, ‘Dust to Dust’, 247–50.

[69] Hignell, ‘Crowds, Clouds and the Raining Champions’, 77–8.

[70] Duke, ‘The Drive to Modernization and the Supermarket Imperative’, 137. For details of the particular case of Brighton and Hove Albion FC, now into its fifth year of a planning dispute, see Argus [UK Newsquest Regional Press] (18 Feb. 2003); (25 June 2004); (20 Dec. 2004).