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Abstract
As a departure from sport ethics and sociology of law this article deals with norms, rules, ethical principles and legal instruments that have an influence on the development of sport. The subject is connected to the Nordic regulation of sport, with a tradition of self-regulation and internal dispute resolutions; recently this ‘autonomy’ has been challenged by the interests of the market, different political pressures and by ethical discourses in the civil society. This is conceptualized as a state of normative tension and a ‘sport model’ in transition. The ethical departure focuses on the phenomenology of sport, illuminating internal values important to sport and the development of different conflict resolutions within sport organisations. The socio-legal perspective places sport in a social and normative context, focussing on various normative sources exterior to sport that will have an impact on the development of sport.
Notes
1 CitationDunning, Sport Matters.
2 CitationWaddington, Sport, Health and Drugs.
3 CitationRheker, Integration through Games and Sport.
4 CitationHorne, Sport in a Consumer Culture.
5 CitationSmith and Westerbeek, Sport in the Global Market Place.
6 CitationMorgan, Why Sports Morally Matter.
7 CitationFoster, ‘The Juridification of Sport’; CitationMacaulay, ‘Images of Law’; CitationEwick and Silbey, The Commonplace of Law; CitationFraser, Cricket and the Law.
8 CitationCarlsson, Excitement, Fair Play.
9 CitationCarlsson, ‘Idrottens normativa förändringsprocesser’.
10 We use Nordic to catch the general development in Finland, Norway, Denmark and Sweden, despite the fact that we can trace certain differences between the countries.
11 CitationMalmsten, Idrottens föreningsrätt; CitationBackman, Idrottsjuridik – en introduktion.
12 This is a basic judgement that is supported by academics (Jyri Backman) as well as leading lawyers (Christer Pahlin and Krister Malmsten) in the Swedish Sport Federation.
13 Perhaps a fairer conceptualization of Nordic sport will be sport as a ‘semi-autonomous system’, because of governmental support through the tax systems. Despite the economic input, the State has, in a historical perspective, never put any kind of political pressure on sport, even though the State has regarded sport and its organization as an important component in the Welfare Society. Cf., CitationNorberg, Idrottens väg till folkhemmet.
14 CitationNorberg, Idrottens väg till folkhemmet
15 CitationNorberg, Idrottens väg till folkhemmet
16 CitationLindfelt, Idrott och moral.
17 CitationPearson, ‘Deception, Sportsmanship and Ethics’, 263.
18 CitationFraleigh, ‘Why the Good Foul’, 267.
19 Cf., the State's position as ‘actively neutral’; Norberg, Idrottens väg till folkhemmet.
20 Lindfelt, Idrott och moral, 27. See also CitationLindfelt, Meningsskapande idrott, 93–4.
21 CitationElias and Dunning, Quest for Excitement.
22 Lindfelt, Idrott och moral, 28.
23 Lindfelt, Idrott och moral, 28 There are various forms of rules; they might be constitutional (goals and offside), functional (faking injury causing a yellow card) or value-oriented (e.g. formalized ideals of fair play such as dealing with racism). Furthermore, different sports have rules that are dominated by safety, such as ‘high kicking’ and violent kicks from behind.
24 Lindfelt, Idrott och moral, 38–9.
25 Lindfelt, Idrott och moral, 40–1.
26 Furthermore, through the rules, the games as well as the individual championships attain a positive predictability, ensuring fair conditions for all participants. In legal terms, the rule of law is possible to maintain by a standardization of rules. In this respect, similar situations should be estimated by equal competence, manners and procedures.
27 Lindfelt, Idrott och moral, 52.
28 CitationSimon, ‘Internalism’.
29 Or: One has to take the rough with the smooth! In Swedish: Den som sig i leken ger, bör leken tåla.
30 CitationElickson, Order without Law.
31 We have to express certain scepticism towards the concept of consent, because the concept ought to be regarded as ‘a legal fiction’ which we have to support or dismiss, since there is no other alternative. Cf. CitationParpworth, ‘Guarding the Game’.
32 CitationSimon, Fair Play.
33 CitationGardiner et al. , Sports Law, 51.
34 CitationGardiner et al. , Sports Law; CitationGrayson, Sport and the Law; CitationMcArdle, From Boot Money to Bosman.
35 Gardiner et al., Sports Law, 51.
36 CitationCarlsson, ‘Den som sig i leken ger, bör leken tåla, eller…?’
37 Gardiner et al., Sports Law, 51.
38 Gardiner et al., Sports Law
39 CitationGalligan, Discretionary Powers.
40 CitationCarlsson, ‘Blowing the Whistle?’
41 CitationCarlsson and Hoff, ‘Idrottens konfliktlösningssystem’.
42 TT, Tidningarnas Telegrambyrå, 14 January 2000.
43 Anroth, Aftonbladet.
44 CitationBanakar, The Doorkeepers; CitationConklin, The Phenomenology.
45 Cf., CitationBlackshaw and Crabbe, New Perspectives; CitationCaudwell, Sport, Sexuality; CitationFields, Female Gladiators; CitationGiulianotti and McArdle, Sport, Civil Liberties; CitationKing, Offside Racism.
46 Section of Law: Chapter 3. 5 § Criminal Law (RH 1995:23) Case No. B 3105/94.
47 This situation could be related to physicians’ professional condition, in which strain and time pressure are not regarded as an extenuating circumstance in relation to malpractice claims. Stress situations are something that they should be educated to handle.
48 Swedish Sport Confederation, ‘Idrotten vill’, 2005. http://www.rf.se/files/{F9E027CE-C1FB-4178-B5F0-91E11700D594}.pdf.
49 Svea hovrätt [Court of Appeal] case No. B 8437-04, sentence 2005-02-07.
50 CitationBairner, Sport, Nationalism.
51 CitationKeer, Rethinking Aggression.
52 Simon, ‘Internalism’.
53 Carlsson, ‘Idrottens normativa förändringsprocesser’.
54 CitationParrish, Sports Law; CitationHallgreen, European Sports Law.
55 Kouvola hovrätt [Court of Appeal], 23 Nov. 2000, case No. S 99/756. CitationRauste, ‘Kan en domstol besluta om idrottares framgång i tävling?’, 188.
56 CitationRauste, ‘Kan en domstol besluta om idrottares framgång i tävling?’, 188
57 Actually, the owner could establish a high correlation between statistics and the outcome of the race in Suur-Hollola-Ajo; the horse with the best statistics was the champion at Suur-Hollola-Ajo, the horse with the second best annual data became the second horse at the racing, the third was that with the third ranking in statistics, and so on, with a high link down to position number 10. According to this reasoning, the plaintiff's horse would have taken the second position in the race, with a prize money of 243,600 Finnish marks. The racing organizer, on the other hand, argued that the horse had run the risk of galloping and, consequently, of being disqualified. According to the Court of Appeal the horse had had tremendous possibilities of being successful in the race. Still, according to the majority of the judges, the decision also had to regard the hazard of horse-racing, as in all sports logic. The court admitted damages of 75,600 Finnish marks, and the horse obtained a fourth position and thus ‘had no ability to stretch to position two’.
58 CitationEitzen, Fair and Foul.
59 According to Jay Coakley there are actually no empirical data supporting sport's positive or negative effects on personal development. Cf., CitationCoakley, Sport in Society.
60 CitationCarlsson and Fransson, ‘Barn och idrott i ljuset av FN:s barnkonvention’.
61 CitationDavid, Human Rights.
62 CitationHoff, Varför etiska kommittéer?
63 CitationPetersen and Zahle, eds, Legal Polycentricity.
64 Foster, ‘The Juridification of Sport'; Bo Carlsson, ‘Idrottens förrättsligande’ [The juridification of sport]. idrottsforum.org, 2004. http://www.idrottsforum.org/articles/carlsson/carlsson.html.
65 CitationJarvie, Sport, Culture.