Stadium as public sphere

Abstract

Though spectator sport is often understood as escapist entertainment, stadiums regularly aggregate thousands of citizens in close physical space, thus making political expression achievable, if not unavoidable. Political expressions at sporting events are actively discouraged by sport commentators, politicians and other authorities. In contrast, this essay underscores how and why the sporting stadium should be considered a vital political space. Theories of the public sphere guide how we understand the construction of political views. Physical space is a key element that encourages or constricts dissent. Mass mediation amplifies certain forms of public discourse. With conceptions of the public sphere, space and media, the essay analyses the Italian football stadium that, within the context of Italian cultural and political life, has been a prominent stage for political expression. To conclude, I draw comparisons with the American sporting stadium and question the ‘a-political’ mentality that threatens to dominate the stands.

Notes

^1.Hénaff and Strong, Public Space and Democracy, 5.

^2.Kohn, Brave New Neighborhoods, 201.

^3.Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere.

^4.Kohn, Brave New Neighborhoods, disputes with Habermas.

^5.Bauman and Feaster, ‘Fellow Townsmen’, 38.

^6.Habermas, Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere. See also Habermas, ‘Public Sphere’.

^7.Willson, ‘Enacting Public Space’, 1.

^8.Arendt, Human Condition.

^9.Villa, ‘Theatricality in the Public Realm’, 145.

^10.Kohn, Brave New Neighborhoods, 4.

^11. Ibid., 7.

^12. Ibid., 11.

^13.Hénaff and Strong, Public Space and Democracy, 7.

^14.Kohn, Brave New Neighborhoods, 13.

^15. Ibid., 10.

^16.Guschwan, ‘Riot in the Curve’.

^17.Kohn, Brave New Neighborhoods, 59.

^18. Ibid., 59.

^19.Dahlgren, Television and the Public Sphere, 2.

^20.Chen and Wellman, ‘Minding the Cyber-Gap’.

^21.Sunstein, ‘Polarization of Extremes’, 63.

^22.Kohn, Brave New Neighborhoods, 211.

^23. Ibid., 209.

^24.Delicath and DeLuca, ‘Image Events’.

^25. Ibid., 319.

^26. Ibid., 315.

^27. Ibid., 327.

^28.Bauman and Feaster, ‘Fellow Townsmen’.

^29.Dundes and Falassi, La Terra in Piazza.

^30.Guschwan, ‘Fans, Romans, Countrymen’.

^31.Foot, Calcio, 334.

^32.De Biasi and Lanfranchi, ‘Importance of Difference’, 102.

^33. See, for example, Herzfeld, Poetics of Manhood.

^34.Guschwan, ‘Fans, Romans, Countrymen’.

^35.Putnam, Making Democracy Work. In ‘E Pluribus Unum’, Putnam notes that social capital can have the negative effect of excluding outsiders. Italian soccer culture can exclude women from its social networks.

^36. For example, the Core de Roma fan club supports several charitable initiatives, http://www.corederoma.it/online/?page_id = 45462

^37.McCarthy, ‘Forza Italia’, 135.

^38. See P. Popham, ‘Berlusconi Says “Revolution” in Store if Soccer Clubs Fail’, The Independent (London), March 26, 2004, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/berlusconi-says-revolution-in-store-if-soccer-clubs-fail-6172077.html

^39. Mark Duff, ‘Player's “Fascist Salute” Probed’, BBC Online, December 13, 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4526230.stm

^40. Hawkey, ‘Political Football’.

^41. See The Scotsman, ‘Lucarelli Proud to Play Left Winger’, http://www.scotsman.com/sport/football/top-football-stories/lucarelli-proud-to-play-left-winger-1-1416079

^42.Conti, ‘Gli Anni di Piombo nella Letterature Italiana’.

^43. See Dyal, ‘Ultras, the State and Violence’, for an analysis of violence and media coverage in the ultra culture. Also see Guschwan, ‘Tessera della Rivolta’.

^44.Goffman, ‘Interaction Order’, 6.

^45. I will use ultrà to denote the singular and ultràs to denote the plural, though this is not consistent with Italian usage. Ultras (plural, without the accent) indicates a more politically motivated version of ultrà, a more general term for passionate fandom, though these terms are not necessarily discrete.

^46. Roversi, ‘Birth of the Ultràs’, 142.

^47. Ibid., 141.

^48.Guschwan, ‘Riot in the Curve’.

^49.Bromberger, La Partita di Calcio, 224.

^50. Bromberger 1995, 137, cited in De Biasi and Lanfranchi, ‘Importance of Difference, 100.

^51.Bromberger, La Partita di Calcio, 225, trans. ‘la partita parla di cose serie: della morte, del sesso, dell'identità dell'altro’.

^52. Ibid., 196, trans. ‘Lo stadio è uno dei pochi spazi dove si può provare il piacere di parole e di gesti che sono al limite della regola’.

^53.Ginsborg, Italy and Its Discontents, 116.

^54.Testa and Armstrong, Football, Fascism and Fandom, 85.

^55.Mack-Smith, Italy.

^56.Putnam, Making Democracy Work.

^57.Bull, ‘Ethnicity, Racism and the Northern League’, 175.

^58. Lepre 1993, 306, cited in McCarthy, ‘Forza Italia’, 135.

^59. Nicholas Porro, in Testa and Armstrong, Football, Fascism and Fandom, vii.

^60.Foot, Calcio, 309.

^61. Ibid., trans. ‘Vesuvio facci sognare’.

^62. Ibid., trans. ‘Forza Etna’.

^63. Trans. Benvenuti in Italia.

^64. Trans. Giulietta è ‘na zoccola.

^65.Foot, Calcio, 341.

^66. See D. Willey, ‘The Rise and Fall of Northern League Founder Umberto Bossi’, BBC News Online, April 14, 2012, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-17703460

^67. Trans. Onore alla tigre Arkan.

^68. Trans. Onore al gatto Silvestro.

^69. The Boys denied involvement, but six alleged fans were arrested. See Corriere della Sera, ‘Svastiche allo Stadio’, February 7, 2006, http://www.corriere.it/Primo_Piano/Cronache/2006/02_Febbraio/06/roma.shtml

^70.Corriere della Sera, ‘Il Sequestro di Tommaso Onofri’, April 4, 2006, http://www.corriere.it/Primo_Piano/Cronache/2006/04_Aprile/01/scheda_tommaso.shtml

^71.BBC News Online, ‘Officer “Rues” Killing Lazio Fan’, November 12, 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7090170.stm

^72.Agacinski, ‘Stages of Democracy’, 140.

^73.Corriere della Sera (English version), ‘Calcio Set for Kickoff but Amato Says No’, February 5, 2007, http://www.corriere.it/english/articoli/2007/02_Febbraio/05/calcio.shtml

^74.La RepubblicaOnline, ‘Nasce l'albo degli striscioni’, September 5, 2012, http://www.repubblica.it/rubriche/spycalcio/2012/09/05/news/ecco_l_albo_degli_striscioni_bari_impizziamo_per_te_-42002310/

^75.Delicath and DeLuca, ‘Image Events’, 322.

^76.Guschwan, ‘Fandom, Brandom’.

^77. The show, Striscia la Notizia (The Slither of the News), is a news parody show that airs on Channel 5, one of Berlusconi's Mediaset channels. See http://www.striscialanotizia.mediaset.it/

^78.Dahlgren, Television and the Public Sphere, 46.

^79. Personal correspondence, March 15, 2006. trans. Sono communista, Romanista.

^80.Butterworth, ‘Ritual in the “Church of Baseball”’.

^81.Bellamy, Citizenship, 99.