Breaking away from the ‘big boys’? Jamaican and ‘White Commonwealth’ expectations at the 1966 British Empire & Commonwealth Games

Abstract

In 1966, Jamaica became the first nation outside of Britain and its former white dominions to host the Commonwealth Games. Jamaican officials anticipated that hosting the Games just four years after the nation achieved independence would provide the country with an unprecedented opportunity to announce itself to the world and secure valuable economic dividends. Recognising the importance of positive publicity, and the daunting task they faced, Jamaican authorities endeavoured to ensure that the Games were a success. Unfortunately, a number of vociferous officials, athletes and media commentators from the traditional host nations (the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and New Zealand) were not shy when it came to sharing their views about the hosts' shortcomings. Such complaints expressed a consistent tone of disapproval with three main aspects of the Games: the extent to which they were able to sustain what was understood to be a traditional contribution to Commonwealth unity, the overall organisation of the competitions, and the state of the nation itself. These assessments also reveal a consistent sense of entitlement from the traditional host nations and highlight their sometimes alarmed responses to a changing political and athletic context in which Caribbean and African nations were becoming increasingly powerful.

Acknowledgements

Funding from a SSHRC Standard Research Grant and St. Thomas University's Senate Research Committee facilitated the completion of this article as did the fine work of some very dedicated research assistants: Jessica Fenton, Cindy Fraser, Anne Dance, Jamie Horncastle, Ashley Doiron, Hannah-Lee Benbow and Gwen Parsons. My thanks to Catherine Gidney and the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments on earlier drafts of this article.

Notes

1. ‘Kingston By A Nose’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston] 26 November 1962, 1; ‘Seaga: “A Signal Honour”’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston] 26 November 1962, 1.

2. Herbert Macdonald, ed., The Official History of the 8th British Empire and Commonwealth Games (Kingston: Organising Committee of the 8th British Empire & Commonwealth Games, c.1967), 264.

3. See, for example, C.L.R. James, Beyond a Boundary (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993 [1963]) and Brian Stoddart, ‘Caribbean Cricket: The Role of Sport in Emerging Small-nation Politics’, Sport in Society 9, no. 5 (2006): 790–808.

4. See, for example, D. Black and B. Peacock, ‘Catching Up: Understanding the Pursuit of Major Games by Rising Developmental States’, International Journal of the History of Sport 28, no. 16 (November 2011): 2271–89; D. Black, ‘Dreaming Big: The Pursuit of “Second Order” Games as a Strategic Response to Globalization’ Sport in Society 11, no. 4 (2008): 467–80; D. Black and J. van der Westhuizen, ‘The Allure of Global Games for “Semi-Peripheral” Polities and Spaces: A Research Agenda’, Third World Quarterly 25, no. 7 (2004): 1195–214.

5. Dean Allen, Brendon Knott and Kamilla Swart, ‘“Africa's Tournament”? The Branding Legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup’, International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no. 16 (2013): 1994–2006; Dean Allen, ‘“The Successes and Challenges of Hosting the 2010 FIFA World Cup”: The Case of Cape Town, South Africa’, Soccer & Society 14, no. 3 (2013): 404–15; Brendon Knott, Alan Fyall and Ian Jones, ‘The Nation-Branding Legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup for South Africa’ Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management 22, no. 6 (2013): 569–95.

6. J. Van der Westhuizen, ‘Marketing Malaysia as a Model Modern Muslim State: The Significance of the 16th Commonwealth Games’ Third World Quarterly 25, no. 7 (2004): 1277–91; L. Lockstone and T. Baum ‘Fun in the Family: Tourism and the Commonwealth Games’, International Journal of Tourism Research 10 (2008): 497–509; Muhammad Muda, ‘The Significance of Commonwealth Games in Malaysia's Foreign Policy’, The Round Table 346 (1998): 211–26; Boria Majumdar and Nalin Mehta, Sellotape Legacy: Delhi & the Commonwealth Games (New Delhi: Harper Collins & The India Today Group, 2010), 4–7.

7. On the economic and political motivations of the ‘traditional’ host nations, see Daniel Gorman, ‘Amateurism, Imperialism, Internationalism and the First British Empire Games’, International Journal of the History of Sport 27, no. 4 (2010): 611–34; Michael Dawson, ‘Acting Global, Thinking Local: “Liquid Imperialism” and the Multiple Meanings of the 1954 British Empire & Commonwealth Games’, The International Journal of the History of Sport 23, no. 1 (2006): 3–27; and Michael Dawson ‘Putting Cities “On The Map”: the 1954 British Empire & Commonwealth Games in Comparative and Historical Perspective’, Urban Geography 32, no. 6 (2011): 788–803.

8. ‘Empire Games Family Affair’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 6 November 1963, 12. The moratorium on ‘team’ sports remained in place until Kuala Lumpur hosted the Games in 1998.

9. ‘Herbert MacDonald, a man of experience’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 30 January 1966, 11.

10. Herbert Macdonald, ed., The Official History of the 8th British Empire and Commonwealth Games (Kingston: Organising Committee of the 8th British Empire & Commonwealth Games, c.1967), 1–2. Salisbury, Rhodesia finished a distant third in voting while Delhi had withdrawn its application before the final vote. ‘Jamaica Gets in ‘Rum Punch’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 22 November 1962, 24. Abrahams was another experienced sport administrator. He had served as director of organisation for the 1962 Central American and Caribbean Games and would serve in that same capacity for the 1966 British Empire & Commonwealth Games. See ‘George Abrahams, A Hard Worker’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 13 February 1966, 11.

11. ‘Jamaica Gets in ‘Rum Punch’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 22 November 1962, 24.

12. ‘Sangster confident the Games will do Jamaica proud’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 19 February 1966, 16.

13. ‘Games Deficit May Be £175,000’ Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 18 September 1966, 12.

14. ‘Games Flags raised at Mona’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 26 July 1966, 1; ‘The Freedom of Jamaica is Yours…’ Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 26 July 1966, 16; ‘Commonwealth Bonds Will Be Strengthened’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 4 August 1966, 8

15. ‘Commonwealth Bonds Will Be Strengthened’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 4 August 1966, 8

16. ‘Commonwealth Games’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 31 July 1966, 8.

17. ‘Jamaica – A Commonwealth in Miniature’, Special Games Supplement Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 14 August 1966, 22; ‘How Jamaica will Benefit from the Empire Games’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 28 September 1965, 15. ‘Sangster Confident the Games will do Jamaica Proud’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 19 February 1966, 16.

18. ‘“Jamaicans will Reach Many Finals at Tokyo” – Macdonald’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 27 September 1964, 12; ‘World-wide Publicity from BOAC’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 30 April 1966, 7; ‘Travel News’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 16 July 1966, 16; ‘“Orbit” features the Games’ Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 7 June 1967, 14.

19. ‘Make Jamaica One of the Most Beautiful Islands on Earth – Sir Clifford’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 28 December 1964, 16; Fundraising Committee Letter Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 11 September 1965, 9; ‘We Must All be Good Hosts – Mr. Sangster’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 19 July 1966, 14.

20. L.D. Roberts, ‘Sports Editor's Diary’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 12 December 1965, 15.

21. Colin Gregory, ‘Of This and That,’ Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 13 October 1965, 10; ‘Mountain View Avenue’, Letter to the Editor from ‘Interested Citizen’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 18 February 1966, 10

22. Vincent Morrison, Letter to Editor, Sunday Gleaner Magazine, 5 September 1965, 12; Iona Burke, Letter to Editor, Sunday Gleaner Magazine, 12 September 1965, 12; ‘Disorder: Graham Warns Against Threat to Games’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 7 May 1966, 1.

23. ‘Washington Embassy puts out Games Newsletter’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 11 January 1966, 12.

24. ‘Commonwealth Games’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 31 July 1966, 8.

25. ‘Eighth Games’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 4 August 1966, 12.

26. ‘1966 Games will be Biggest Ever’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 6 May 1964, 14.

27. ‘G-G urges Islandwide Backing for Games’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 26 July 1965, 1

28. Colin Gregory, ‘Of this and That’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 18 November 1964, 14.

29. “Macdonald Defends New Arena,” Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 19 July 1966, 14.

30. Howard Johnson, ‘The “Jamaica 300” Celebrations of 1955: Commemoration in a Colonial Polity’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 26, no. 2 (1998): 120–1, 123, 125, 128, 129, 135.

31. Howard Johnson, ‘The “Jamaica 300” Celebrations of 1955: Commemoration in a Colonial Polity’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 26, no. 2 (1998): 126.

32. Rex Nettleton, ‘Introduction: Fledgeling Years’, in R. Nettleton, ed., Jamaica in Independence: Essays on the Early Years (Kingston: Heinemann Caribbean, 1989), 2–5, quotation at 5.

33. Jimmy Carnegie, ‘Sport in National Development in Jamaica’, in R. Nettleton, ed., Jamaica in Independence: Essays on the Early Years (Kingston: Heinemann Caribbean, 1989), 266–7

34. M.J. Burbank, G.D. Andranovich and C. H. Heying, Olympic Dreams: The Impact of Mega-Events on Local Politics (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2001); H. Hiller, ‘Post-event Outcomes and the Post-modern Turn: The Olympics and Urban Transformations’ European Sport Management Quarterly 6, no. 4 (2006): 317–32.

35. “Jamaica – a Commonwealth in Miniature” Sunday Gleaner 14 August 1966, 22 [Special Games Supplement].

36. ‘Zambia will Boycott the Eighth Games’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 24 January 1966, 10; “Rhodesians Don't Need Passports for Eight[h] Games,” Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 28 January 1966, 16; “Rhodesia Pulls Out of Commonwealth Games,” Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 14 April 1966, 24.

37. W. David McIntyre, The Significance of the Commonwealth, 1965–90 (London: Macmillan, 1991), 28–9.

38. ‘Zambia Will Boycott the Eighth Games’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 24 January 1966, 10.

39. ‘Rhodesians Don't Need Passports for Eight[h] Games’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 28 January 1966, 16.

40. ‘Rhodesia Pulls Out of Commonwealth Games’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 14 April 1966, 24.

41. ‘Zambia Quits Games over Rhodesia’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 16 July 1966, 15.

42. ‘Empire Sports Pageant Begins’, New Zealand Herald, 31 July 1954, 9.

43. See, for example, ‘Games group drops “Empire”’, Globe & Mail [Toronto], 9 August 1966, 26; ‘“Empire” Dropped’, The Press [Christchurch], 3 August 1966, 1; ‘“Empire” Dropped in Name for Games’, West Australian, 3 August 1966, 28.

44. ‘A family affair,’ Sydney Morning Herald, 4 August 1966, 2.

45. ‘Kerr may clash with Keino’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 27 May 1966, 18.

46. Mike Agostini, ‘Kenya's Hope Keino Should Win’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 29 May 1966, 11.

47. John Rodda, ‘Clarke Loses to Temu in Stirring Race’, Manchester Guardian, 8 August 1966, 4.

48. ‘Clarke's Fine Finish Still Fails to Keep Keino at Bay’, Manchester Guardian, 10 August 1966, 5.

49. John Bale, ‘Nyandika Maiyaro and Kipchoge Keino: Transgression, Colonial Rhetoric and the Postcolonial Athlete’, in D. Andrews and S. Jackson, eds., Sport Stars: The Cultural Politics of Sporting Celebrity (London: Routledge, 2001): 218–30.

50. Alan Trengove, ‘Kenyan Soldier causes Biggest Upset at Games’, Sydney Morning Herald, 7 August 1966, 13; Alan Trengove, ‘Two Late Entries to Help Keino against Clarke’, Sydney Morning Herald, 9 August 1966, 17; Alan Trengove, ‘The moment of defeat…’, Sydney Morning Herald, 10 August 1966, 1.

51. ‘Clarke's Reputation at Stake in Three Miles’, West Australian, 9 August 1966, 22; ‘“Death knell sounds’, Sydney Morning Herald, 11 August 1966, 11.

52. ‘Clarke Beaten by Unknown’, Brisbane Courier-Mail, 8 August 1966, 1.

53. ‘Death Knell of Games’, New Zealand Herald, 11 August 1966, 4 [section 2].

54. ‘Mistakes were Made, but … “Jamaica's Stature has been Improved by the Games”’ Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 18 August 1966, 21.

55. ‘How Jamaica will Benefit from the Empire Games’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 28 September 1965, 16; ‘Joe Coyne, A Perfectionist’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 20 February 1966, 11.

56. ‘1966 Games will be Biggest Ever’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 6 May 1964, 14.

57. ‘Mottley's grace and Keino's Speed Enhance Last Day’, Manchester Guardian, 15 August 1966, 4.

58. ‘Canadian Team Led in Parade by Bill Crothers’, Globe & Mail, 5 August 1966, 23.

59. Jack Sullivan, ‘Royalty, Police, Officials, Cows Join Marathoners in Confusion’, Globe & Mail, 12 August 1966, 24.

60. ‘Alder Wins Marathon in Spite of Absence of Signposts’, Manchester Guardian, 12 August 1966, 6; ‘Scot's Win in Games Marathon’, Brisbane Courier-Mail, 12 August 1966, 1.

61. John Rodda, ‘Jamaica Needed Practical Help – Earlier’, Manchester Guardian, 16 August 1966, 5.

62. Myrtle Cook, ‘Anthem, Flag Add to Games’ Chaos’, Montreal Star, 12 August 1966, 18.

63. ‘Worst Organised Games’, The Press [Christchurch], 11 August 1966, 20.

64. ‘Games Open, Despite Many Setbacks’, West Australian, 6 August 1966, 1.

65. ‘U.S. Proposal Supported’, West Australian, 19 August 1966, 29.

66. Alan Trengove, ‘Modern Keystone Cops turn Games Script into Complete Shambles’, Sydney Morning Herald, 9 August 1966, 17.

67. Herbert Macdonald, ed., The Official History of the 8th British Empire and Commonwealth Games (Kingston: Organising Committee of the 8th British Empire & Commonwealth Games, c.1967), 4.

68. ‘Games Open in Blaze of Pageantry’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 5 August 1966, 16.

69. ‘Our Games’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 13 August 1966, 12.

70. ‘Jamaica's Girls a Big Hit’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 25 July 1966, 14; ‘Rum Tempting at Games’, The Age [Melbourne], 21 July 1966, 1.

71. John Rodda and Brian Crowther, ‘Games Diary’, Manchester Guardian, 4 August 1966, 5.

72. ‘Fencers on Guard’, The Press [Christchurch], 29 July 1966, 15; ‘Motor-Cycle Stolen’, The Press [Christchurch], 11 August 1966, 20; John Crocker, ‘Unrest Lies Near Surface In Jamaica’, New Zealand Herald, 28 July 1966, 8 [section 1].

73. Paul Rimstead, ‘Athletes Receive Warning as Toughs Prey on Visitors’, Globe & Mail, 5 August 1966, 23.

74. Rimstead, ‘Athletes Receive Warning’.

75. Alan Trengove, ‘Jamaica, Island of Savage Contrasts’, Brisbane Courier-Mail, 6 August 1966, 2.

76. National Archives of Australia (Sydney), SP1011/3 SP1011/3/0 WOB 17, File: Sport – Commonwealth Games – T.V. and Broadcasts, ‘Knife at TV Man's Throat’, Sun, 29 July 1966, n.p.

77. ‘Swimmers will not Join Games march’, Brisbane Courier-Mail, 2 August 1966, 14.

78. ‘Jamaica – a Commonwealth in Miniature’, Special Games Supplement Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 14 August 1966, 22.

79. ‘Porritt Praises Jamaica for Games’ Success’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 12 August 1966, 1.

80. L.D. Roberts, ‘Sport's Editor's Diary’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 1 January 1967, 12.

81. ‘Mistakes Were Made…’, Daily Gleaner [Kingston], 18 August 1966, 20.

82. For important discussions concerning just who benefits from the decision to host sports mega-events, see K. Wamsley and M. Heine, ‘Tradition, Modernity, and the Construction of Civic Identity: The Calgary Olympics’ OLYMPIKA: The International Journal of Olympic Studies V (1996): 81–90; Black, ‘Dreaming Big’: 467–80; and D. Whitson, ‘Bringing the World to Canada: “The Periphery of the Centre” Third World Quarterly 25, no. 7 (2004): 1215–32.