‘Power in the arm, steel in the will and courage in the breast’ – a historical approach to ideal norms and men’s dominance in Swedish club sports

ABSTRACT

From both a quantitative and qualitative perspective, research shows that men and masculinities have dominated the Swedish sports movement for a long time and that sport as a so-called ‘democratic people’s movement’ has been criticised for being a male movement. Given the self-made claims of the Swedish Sports Confederation’s fostering of inclusivity and democratisation, this study encompasses a critical and historical perspective on the inclusive and exclusive dimensions of sport. The study object is a Swedish sports club and the specific aim is to analyse the prevailing norms and ideals and how they eventually helped to reproduce men’s domination in a local sports club. Chronologically, the paper uses a historical comparative approach studying the club’s 1910s–1920s and 1970s–1980s. The research questions put are: What characterised the norms of the ideal member and collective membership in terms of gender and did these change over time? Is it possible to find specific examples of inclusion and exclusion techniques by studying the club’s photographs and stories? The main result shows subtle and explicit power techniques that reproduced (some) men’s superior position at the club level.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for fruitful and critical comments on earlier drafts of the paper. Thanks also to Jeff Hearn for reading and commenting on an earlier version.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

ORCID

Daniel Alsarve http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4985-3595

Notes

1. Lindroth, J. Idrottens väg till folkrörelse : studier i svensk idrottsrörelse till 1915 [The Sport’s Road to Become a People’s Movement: Studies in the Swedish Sports Movement up until 1915] (Uppsala: Uppsala universitet, 1974). J.R. Norberg, Idrottens väg till folkhemmet : studier i statlig idrottspolitik 1913–1970 [The Sport’s Road into the Welfare State: Studies in Governmental Sport’s Politics, 1913–1970] (Stockholm: SISU idrottsböcker, 2004).

2. D. Alsarve, I ständig strävan efter framgång? : föreningsdemokratins innehåll och villkor i Örebro sportklubb 1908-89 [The Everlasting Endeavours for Success? The Contents and Conditions of Associative Democracy in Örebro Sportklubb 1908–89] (Örebro: Örebro universitet, 2014); E. Olofsson, Har kvinnorna en sportslig chans? Den svenska idrottsrörelsen och kvinnorna under 1900-talet [Do Women Have a Sporting Chance? Organized Sport and Women in Sweden in the 20th Century] (Umeå: Umeå universitet, 1989); H. Tolvhed, ‘The Sports Woman as a Cultural Challenge: Swedish Popular Press Coverage of the Olympic Games during the 1950s and 1960s’, The International Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 2 (2012); H. Tolvhed, ‘Sex Dilemmas, Amazons and Cyborgs: Feminist Cultural Studies and Sport’, Culture Unbound. Journal of Current Cultural Research 5, no. 2 (2013).

3. See for example T. Andersson, Kung fotboll : den svenska fotbollens kulturhistoria från 1800-talets slut till 1950 [King Football: The Cultural History of Swedish Football from the End of the 1800s until 1950] (Eslöv: B. Östlings bokförl. Symposion, 2002); J.A. Mangan, ‘“Muscular, Militaristic and Manly”: The Middle-Class Hero as Moral Messenger’, The International Journal of the History of Sport 27, no. 1 (2010): 150–68.

4. J. Hearn et al., ‘Hegemonic Masculinity and Beyond: 40 Years of Research in Sweden’, Men and Masculinities 15, no. 1 (2012): 31–55; H. Larsson, Iscensättningen av kön i idrott : en nutidshistoria om idrottsmannen och idrottskvinnan [The Enactment of Gender in Sports: A Contemporary History of the Sportsman and Sportswoman] (Stockholm: HLS förl., 2001); J. Svender, H. Larsson and K. Redelius, ‘Promoting Girls’ Participation in Sports: Discursive Constructions of Girls in a Sports Initiative’, Sport, Education and Society 17, no. 4 (2012).

5. R.W. Connell, Which Way is Up? Essays on Class, Sex and Culture (London: Unwin Hyman, 1983); R.W. Connell, The Men and the Boys (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000); R.W. Connell, Masculinities (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2005). R.W. Connell and J.W. Messerschmidt, ‘Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept’, Gender and Society 19, no. 6 (2005): 829–59.

6. Lindroth, Idrottens väg till folkrörelse.

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid.; Alsarve, I ständig strävan efter framgång?

9. Norberg, Idrottens väg till folkhemmet.

10. P. Billing, M. Franzén and T. Peterson, ‘Paradoxes of Football Professionalization in Sweden: A Club Approach’, Soccer & Society 5, no. 1 (2004).

11. Ibid.; Alsarve, I ständig strävan efter framgång?

12. N.-O. Zethrin, Mellan masskonsumtion och folkrörelse : idrottens kommersialisering under mellankrigstiden [Between Mass Consumption and People’s Movement: The Commercialisation of Sports between the World Wars] (Diss., Örebro University, 2015); Alsarve, I ständig strävan efter framgång?

13. E. Apelmo, ‘(Dis)Abled Bodies, Gender, and Citizenship in the Swedish Sports Movement’, Disability & Society 27, no. 4 (2012).

14. B. Horgby, Dom där : främlingsfientligheten och arbetarkulturen i Norrköping 1890-1960 [The Others: Xenophobia and the working culture in Norrköping 1890–1960] (Stockholm: Carlsson, 1996); H. Tolvhed, Nationen på spel : kropp, kön och svenskhet i populärpressens representationer av olympiska spel 1948–1972 [The Nation at Stake: Body, Gender and Swedishness in the Popular Press’s Representations of the Olympic Games 1948–1972.] (Umeå: h:ström – Text & kultur., 2008; H. Tolvhed, På damsidan : femininitet, motstånd och makt i svensk idrott 1920–1990 [On the Ladies’ Side: Femininity, Resistance and Power in Swedish Sports 1920–90] (Göteborg: Makadam., 2015); Alsarve, I ständig strävan efter framgång?

15. Connell, Which Way is Up?; Connell, The Men and the Boys; Connell, Masculinities; R.W. Connell and J.W. Messerschmidt, ‘Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept’, Gender and Society 19, no. 6 (2005): 829–59. Inspiration is also drawn from Hearn’s concept ‘hegemony of men’, se for example J. Hearn, ‘From Hegemonic Masculinity to the Hegemony of Men’, Feminist Theory 5, no. 1 (2004): 49–72; J. Hearn, ‘Men, Masculinities and the Material(-)Discursive’, NORMA 9, no. 1 (2014): 5–17; J. Hearn, Men of the World: Genders, Globalizations, Transnational Times (London: Sage Publications Ltd, 2015.

16. M.A. Messner, Power at Play: Sports and the Problem of Masculinity (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1992. M.A. Messner, It’s All for the Kids: Gender, Families, and Youth Sports (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2009).

17. D. Alsarve, ‘Addressing Gender Equality: Enactments of Gender and Hegemony in the Educational Textbooks used in Swedish Sports Coaching and Educational Programmes', Sport, Education, Society (2017). doi:10.1080/13573322.2017.1280012; I. Wellard, Sport, Masculinities and the Body (Vol. 1) (New York/London: Routledge, 2009).

18. L. Norman, ‘Bearing the Burden of Doubt: Female Coaches’ Experiences of Gender Relations’, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 81, no. 4 (2010): 506. L. Norman, ‘A Crisis of Confidence: Women Coaches’ Responses to Their Engagement in Resistance’, Sport, Education and Society 19, no. 5 (2014): 532–51. G. Pfister and S. Radtke, ‘Sport, Women, and Leadership: Results of a Project on Executives in German Sports Organizations’, European Journal of Sport Science 9, no. 4 (2009): 229–43.

19. C.C. Aitchison, Sport and Gender Identities: Masculinities, Femininities and Sexualities (London: Routledge, 2007); E.C. Berg, T.A. Migliaccio, and R. Anzini-Varesio, ‘Female Football Players, the Sport Ethic and the Masculinity-sport Nexus’, Sport in Society 17, no. 2 (2014): 176–89; Burstyn, The Rites of Men: Manhood, Politics, and the Culture of Sport (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999); Connell, The Men and the Boys; E. Dunning, ‘Sport as a Male Preserve: Notes on the Social Sources of Masculine Identity and its Transformations’, Theory, Culture & Society 3, no. 1 (1986): 79–90; J. Fundberg, Kom igen, gubbar! : om pojkfotboll och maskuliniteter [Come on, Boys! On Boyś Football and Masculinities] (Stockholm: Carlsson, 2003); R. Holt, Sport and the British: A Modern History (Oxford: Clarendon, 1989); V. Krane et al., ‘Living the Paradox: Female Athletes Negotiate Femininity and Muscularity’, Sex Roles 50, no. 5 (2004): 315–29; J. McKay, Masculinities, Gender Relations, and Sport (Vol. 13) (London: SAGE, 2000).

20. J. Hearn, ‘Men, Masculinities and the Material(-)Discursive’; J. Hearn, Men of the World: Genders, Globalizations, Transnational Times (London: Sage Publications Ltd, 2015).

21. J. Hearn et al., ‘Hegemonic Masculinity and Beyond’.

22. Connell, Masculinities.

23. Connell, Masculinities, 77.

24. Connell, Which Way is Up?; Connell, Masculinities; Hearn, Men of the World.

25. Connell, Which Way is Up?; Connell, The Men and the Boys; R. Connell, ‘Masculinity Construction and Sports in Boys’ Education: A Framework for Thinking About the Issue’, Sport, Education and Society 13, no. 2 (2008): 13145.

26. Connell, Masculinities, 77.

27. Ibid. 78.

28. N.Hammarén, and T. Johansson, ‘Homosociality’, SAGE Open 4, no. 1 (2014).

29. Connell, Masculinities, 77.

30. Hearn et al., ‘Hegemonic Masculinity and Beyond’; Jeleniewski V. Seidler, ‘Masculinities, Bodies, and Emotional Life’, Men and Masculinities 10, no. 1 (2007): 11.

31. For further discussion, see for example V. Burstyn, The Rites of Men; Connell, Which Way is Up?; Connell, Masculinities; Hearn, ‘Men, Masculinities and the Material(-)Discursive’; Hearn, Men of the World: Genders, Globalizations, Transnational Times; M. Messner, ‘Gender Ideologies, Youth Sports, and the Production of Soft Essentialism’, Sociology of Sport Journal 28, no. 2 (2011): 151–70; A. Travers, ‘The Sport Nexus and Gender Injustice’, Studies in Social Justice 2, no. 1 (2008).

32. T. Tännsjö, and C.M. Tamburrini, Values in Sport: Elitism, Nationalism, Gender Equality and the Scientific Manufacturing of Winners (London: Spon., 2000), 101.

33. Burstyn, The Rites of Men; Travers, ‘The Sport Nexus and Gender Injustice’.

34. Connell, Masculinities, 54.

35. Jeleniewski Seidler, ‘Masculinities, Bodies, and Emotional Life’.

36. N. Edley, Analysing Masculinity : Interpretative Repertoires, Ideological Dilemmas and Subject Positions (189–228): Discourse as data (London: Sage in association with The Open University, 2001; M. Wetherell and N. Edley, ‘Negotiating Hegemonic Masculinity: Imaginary Positions and Psycho-Discursive Practices’, Feminism & Psychology 9, no. 3 (1999): 335–56.

37. L. Bryson, ‘Sport and the Maintenance of Masculine Hegemony’, Women’s Studies International Forum 10, no. 4 (1987): 349–60; Messner, Power at Play: Sports and the Problem of Masculinity; M. Price and A. Parker, ‘Sport, Sexuality, and the Gender Order: Amateur Rugby Union, Gay Men, and Social Exclusion’, Sociology of Sport Journal 20, no. 2 (2003): 108–26; R. Pringle, ‘Masculinities, Sport, and Power: A Critical Comparison of Gramscian and Foucauldian Inspired Theoretical Tools’, Journal of Sport & Social Issues 29, no. 3 (2005): 256–278; Tännsjö and Tamburrini, Values in Sport; Wellard, Sport, Masculinities and the Body; K. Woodward, Boxing, Masculinity and Identity : The “I” of the Tiger (New York: Routledge, 2007).

38. A. Godoy-Pressland, ‘Moral Guardians, Miniskirts and Nicola Adams: The Changing Media Discourse on Womeńs Boxing’, in Global Perspectives on Women in Combat Sports: Women Warriors Around the World, eds C.R. Matthews and A. Channon (London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2015).

39. This type of understanding of women sports is inspired by Iris Marion Young’s, On Female Body Experience “Throwing Like a Girl” and Other Essays (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).

40. L. Capranica and F. Aversa, ‘Italian Television Sport Coverage during the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games: A Gender Perspective’, International Review for the Sociology of Sport 37, no. 3-4 (2002): 337–49; L. Crolley and E. Teso, ‘Gendered Narratives in Spain: The Representation of Female Athletes in Marca and El País’, International Review for the Sociology of Sport 42, no. 2 (2007): 149–66; K.K. Davis and C.A. Tuggle, ‘A Gender Analysis of NBC’s Coverage of the 2008 Summer Olympics’, Electronic News 6, no. 2 (2012): 51–66; M.A. Messner, M.C. Duncan and N. Willms, ‘This Revolution is Not Being Televised’, Contexts 5, no. 3 (2006): 34–8; G. Whannel, Media Sport Stars: Masculinities and Moralities (London: Routledge, 2002).

41. Crolley and Teso, ‘Gendered Narratives in Spain’, 193.

42. G. Clavio and A.N. Eagleman, ‘Gender and Sexually Suggestive Images in Sports Blogs’, Journal of Sport Management 25, no. 4 (2011): 295–304. doi:10.1123/jsm.25.4.295; M.C. Duncan, ‘Sports Photographs and Sexual Difference: Images of Women and Men in the 1984 and 1988 Olympic Games’, Sociology of Sport Journal 7, no. 1 (1990): 22–43; J.S. Fink and L.J. Kensicki, ‘An Imperceptible Difference: Visual and Textual Constructions of Femininity in Sports Illustrated and Sports Illustrated for Women’, Mass Communication & Society 5, no. 3 (2002): 317–39; M. Kane and S. Greendorfer ‘The Media’s Role in Accommodating and Resisting Stereotyped Images of Women in Sport’, in Women, Media and Sport: Challenging Gender Values, ed. P.J. Creedon (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1994), 28–44.

43. C. Cooky, M.A. Messner, and R.H. Hextrum, ‘Women Play Sport, But Not on TV: A Longitudinal Study of Televised News Media’, Communication & Sport 1, no. 3 (2013): 203–30. doi:10.1177/2167479513476947.

44. T. Andersson, “Spela fotboll bondjävlar!” : en studie av svensk klubbkultur och lokal identitet från 1950 till 2000-talets början [“Play football Peasant Shits!” A study of Swedish Club Culture and Local Identity during the 1950-2000s] (Eslöv: Brutus Östlings bokförlag Symposion, 2011); P. Billing, M. Franzén and T. Peterson, Vem vinner i längden? : Hammarby IF, Malmö FF och svensk fotboll. [Who Wins in the Long Run? Hammarby IF, Malmö FF and Swedish football] (Lund: Arkiv, 1999). P. Billing, M. Franzén and T. Peterson, ‘Paradoxes of Football Professionalization in Sweden: A Club Approach’, Soccer and Society 5, no. 1 (2004); C. Ericsson, Fotboll, bandy och makt : idrott i brukssamhället. [Football, Bandy and Power: Sports in the Factory Society] (Stockholm: Carlsson, 2004); C. Ericsson, Bandybaronen i folkhemmet : familjen De Geer, bruket och folket [The Bandy Baron in the People’s Home: the Family De Geer, the Factory and the People] (Stockholm: Carlsson, 2013); T. Peterson, Leken som blev allvar : Halmstads bollklubb mellan folkrörelse, stat och marknad. [The Play that Became Serious: Halmstad Football Club between a People’s Movement, the State and the Market] (Lund: Arkiv, 1989). T. Peterson, Den svengelska modellen : svensk fotboll i omvandling under efterkrigstiden. [The Swenglish Model: Swedish Football during the Post War] (Lund: Arkiv, 1993). T. Peterson, ‘Split Visions: The Introduction of the Svenglish Model in Swedish Football’, Soccer and Society 1, no. 2 (2000); T. Peterson, ‘Landskrona BoIS as an Environment for Nurturing and Education’, Soccer & Society 8, no. 1 (2007).

45. Alsarve, I ständig strävan efter framgång?; J. Andreasson, Idrottens kön : genus, kropp och sexualitet i lagidrottens vardag. [Sports’ Gender: Gender, Body and Sexuality in Teamsports’ Weekdays] (Kalmar: Lunds universitet, 2006); Fundberg, Kom igen, gubbar!

46. H. Larsson, Iscensättningen av kön i idrott : en nutidshistoria om idrottsmannen och idrottskvinnan [The Enactment of Gender in Sports: A Contemporary History of the Sportsman and Sportswoman] (Stockholm: HLS förl., 2001); Olofsson, Har kvinnorna en sportslig chans?; J. Svender, Så gör(s) idrottande flickor: Iscensättningar av flickor inom barn- och ungdomsidrotten [Discursive Constructions of Girls in a Sports Initiative: How Sporting Girls are Represented and the Working of Power] (Stockholm: Institutionen för pedagogik och didaktik, Stockholms universitet, 2012); H. Tolvhed, ‘The Sports Woman as a Cultural Challenge: Swedish Popular Press Coverage of the Olympic Games during the 1950s and 1960s’, The International Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 2 (2012): 302–17; H. Tolvhed, ‘Sex Dilemmas, Amazons and Cyborgs: Feminist Cultural Studies and Sport’, Culture Unbound. Journal of Current Cultural Research 5, no. 2 (2013): 273–89. H. Tolvhed, På damsidan : femininitet, motstånd och makt i svensk idrott 1920–1990. [On the Ladies’ Side: Femininity, Resistence and Power in Swedish Sports 1920-90] (Göteborg: Makadam, 2015).

47. S. Hedenborg, ‘The Olympic Games in London 2012 from a Swedish Media Perspective’, The International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no. 7 (2013): 789–804.

48. T. Bruce, J. Hovden, and P. Markula, Sportswomen at the Olympics : A Global Content Analysis of Newspaper Coverage (Rotterdam: Sense, 2010).

49. A.-M. Hellborg and S. Hedenborg ‘The Rocker and the Heroine: Gendered Media Representations of Equestrian Sports at the 2012 Olympics’, Sport in Society 18, no. 2 (2015): 248–61.

50. L. Nochlin, Bathers, Bodies, Beauty: The Visceral Eye (Cambridge,A: Harvard University Press, 2006).

51. M. Brandt and A. Carstens, ‘The Discourse of the Male Gaze: A Critical Analysis of the Feature Section “The Beauty of Sport” in SA Sports Illustrated’, Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 23, no. 3 (2005): 233–44.

52. Ibid., 235.

53. J. Woolridge, ‘Cover Stories: English Football Magazine Cover Portrait Photographs 1950–1975’, Sport in History 30, no. 4 (2010), 524.

54. Ibid., 543; In a similar way, but in another context, Linkman has shown how men’s desired characters in Victorian family album were quite narrow representing dignity, nobleness and strength: see Audrey Linkman, The Victorians: Photographic Portraits (London: Tauris Parke, 1993).

55. Woolridge, ‘Cover Stories’,526.

56. M. Patterson and R. Elliott, ‘Negotiating Masculinities: Advertising and the Inversion of the Male Gaze’, Consumption Markets & Culture 5, no. 3 (2002): 231–49. See also D. Saco, ‘Masculinity as Signs: Poststructuralist Feminist Approaches to the Study of Gender’, In Men, Masculinity, and the Media, ed. S. Craig (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992), Vol. 1, 23–39.

57. Connell, Which Way is Up?; Connell, The Men and the Boys; Connell, Masculinities.

58. R. Elliott et al., ‘Overt Sexuality in Advertising: A Discourse Analysis of Gender Responses’, Journal of Consumer Policy 18, no. 2–3 (1995): 207.

59. E.C. Hirschman and C.J. Thompson, ‘Why Media Matter: Toward a Richer Understanding of Consumers’ Relationships with Advertising and Mass Media’, Journal of Advertising 26, no. 1 (1997): 54.

60. Patterson and Elliott, ‘Negotiating Masculinities’.

61. N. Hammarén and T. Johansson, ‘Homosociality’ SAGE Open 4, no. 1 (2014).

62. Connell, Masculinities; M.C. Duncan, ‘Sports Photographs and Sexual Difference: Images of Women and Men in the 1984 and 1988 Olympic Games’, Sociology of Sport Journal 7, no. 1 (1990): 22–43.

63. Connell, Which Way is Up?; Connell, Masculinities; Hearn, Men of the World: Genders.

64. Örebro is a medium-sized Swedish city located between Stockholm and Oslo.

65. S. Hedenborg, and L. Kvarnström, Det svenska samhället 1720–2006 : böndernas och arbetarnas tid [The Swedish Society 1720–2006: the Time of the Farmers and Workers] (Lund: Studentlitteratur, 2009).

66. See e.g. T. Judt, Postwar: A History of Europe since 1945 (New York: Penguin Books, 2006).

67. Alsarve, I ständig strävan efter framgång?

68. G. Raymond, ‘The Case for Comparing Histories’, The American Historical Review 85, no. 4 (1980): 763–78; C. Ericsson, B. Horgby, and S. Ishihara, Faderliga företagare i Sverige och Japan [Paternal Industrialists in Sweden and Japan] (Stockholm: Carlsson, 2015).

69. T. Skocpol and M. Somers, ‘The Uses of Comparative History in Macrosocial Inquiry’, Comparative Studies in Society and History 22, no. 2 (1980): 174–97.

70. Ibid.

71. See for example Nochlin, Bathers, Bodies, Beauty, 200.

72. Woolridge, ‘Cover Stories’.

73. Clavio and Eagleman, ‘Gender and Sexually Suggestive Images in Sports Blogs’.

74. Ibid.

75. B.A. Knapp, ‘Gender representation in the CrossFit Journal: A Content Analysis’ Sport in Society 18, no. 6 (2015): 699.

76. M. Arvidsson, ‘Fotografi som empiri : att använda fotografier som historisk källa’ [Photography as Empiri: to use Photographies as Sources to History’] in Visuella spår : bilder i kultur- och samhällsanalys [Visual Traces: Images in Cultural and Social Analysis] (Lund: Studentlitteratur, 2003), 179–90; P. Burke, Eyewitnessing: The Uses of Images as Historical Evidence: Picturing History (London: Reaktion Books, 2006).

77. Knapp, ‘Gender Representation in the CrossFit Journal’, 690.

78. See for example Woolridge, ‘Cover Stories’; Burke, Eyewitnessing; P. Wombell and S. Barnes, Sportscape: The Evolution of Sports Photography (London: Phaidon, 2000).

79. Jens Ljunggren, ‘Kroppens Bildning: Linggymnastikens manlighetsprojekt 1790-1914 [The Body Education: Swedish Gymnastics’ masculinity projects 1790–1914]’ (Diss., Stockholm University, 1999).

80. Örebro Sportklubbs medlemsblad (nr 6-7, 1919) 3.

81. R. Carr, ‘The Gentleman and the Soldier: Patriotic Masculinities in Eighteenth-Century Scotland’, Journal of Scottish Historical Studies 28, no. 2 (2008): 102–21.

82. Several researchers have shown the connectedness between masculinity and military; see e.g. R. Godfrey, ‘Military, Masculinity and Mediated Representations: (Con)fusing the Real and the Reel’, Culture and Organization 15, no. 2 (2009): 203–20. doi:10.1080/14759550902925369.

83. Örebro Sportklubbs medlemsblad (nr 11, 1919), 2 (nr 6–7, 1920), 16 and 30 (nr 10–11, 1920). This, and subsequent citations, have been translated from Swedish by a professional translator.

84. Örebro Sportklubbs medlemsblad (nr 6–7, 1919), 3.

85. Ibid.

86. Örebro Sportklubbs medlemsblad (nr 10, 1918) s. 1 f.

87. Örebro Sportklubbs medlemsblad (nr 4–5, 1919), 1.

88. Holt, Sport and the British; J. Lindroth, Idrott under 5000 år. [Sports During 5000 Years] (Stockholm: SISU idrottsböcker, 2011).

89. Örebro Sportklubbs medlemsblad (nr 4–5, 1919) s. 1 f. Elis is a Swedish male name.

90. Alsarve, I ständig strävan efter framgång?

91. P. Billing, , M. Franzén and T. Peterson, ‘Paradoxes of Football Professionalization in Sweden: A Club Approach’, Soccer and Society 5, no. 1 (2004).

92. Alsarve, I ständig strävan efter framgång?

93. Örebro Sportklubb: Fotbollssektionens protokoll 1972-01-27 § 5.

94. Alsarve, I ständig strävan efter framgång?

95. See for example Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society (vol 40, issue 1) where a whole issue deals with feminism, bodies and nudity in various ways.

96. See for instance Z. Salime, ‘New Feminism as Personal Revolutions: Microrebellious Bodies’, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 40, no. 1 (2014): 14–20.

97. Fundberg, Kom igen, gubbar!.

98. See e.g. Patterson and Elliott, ‘Negotiating Masculinities’.

99. ÖSK:aren (nr 25, 1977), 1.

100. Messner, Power at Play: Sports and the Problem of Masculinity; Wellard, Sport, Masculinities and the Body.

101. Woolridge, ‘Cover Stories’,539.

102. Connell, Masculinities, 77.

103. Duncan, ‘Sports Photographs and Sexual Difference’; Fink and Kensicki, ‘An Imperceptible Difference.’

104. ÖSK:aren (nr 14, 1971), 24. See also ÖSK:aren (nr 7, 1969) 10.

105. A.-M. Hellborg and S. Hedenborg, ‘The Rocker and the Heroine: Gendered Media Representations of Equestrian Sports at the 2012 Olympics’, Sport in Society 18, no. 2 (2015): 248–61.

106. Connell, Masculinities.

107. J. Woolridge, ‘Cover Stories: English Football Magazine Cover Portrait Photographs 1950–1975’, Sport in History 30, no. 4 (2010).

108. Örebro Sportklubbs medlemsblad (1918, nr 12), 1.

109. Örebro Sportklubbs medlemsblad (nr 12, 1918), 2.

110. See also Örebro Sportklubbs medlemsblad (nr 12, 1918), 4. ÖSK Protokoll 1909-06-07 § 3–6, 1913-02-01 § 2, 1917-09-06 § 12; Tillägg, 1917-09-23 § 5.

111. Connell, Masculinities, 116.

112. Ibid., 79.

113. ÖSK:aren (nr 1, 1967), 7.

114. Ibid., 5.

115. See e.g. Connell, Masculinities, 130–4; Kane and Greendorfer, ‘The Media’s Role in Accommodating and Resisting Stereotyped Images of Women in Sport’.

116. Connell, Masculinities; Hearn, Men of the World: Genders, Globalizations, Transnational Times.

117. L. Capranica and F. Aversa, ‘Italian Television Sport Coverage during the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games: A Gender Perspective’, International Review for the Sociology of Sport 37, no. 3–4 (2002): 337–49; L. Crolley and E. Teso, ‘Gendered Narratives in Spain: The Representation of Female Athletes in Marca and El País’, International Review for the Sociology of Sport 42, no. 2 (2007): 149–66; K.K. Davis and C.A. Tuggle, ‘A Gender Analysis of NBC’s Coverage of the 2008 Summer Olympics’, Electronic News 6, no. 2 (2012): 51–66; M.A. Messner, M.C. Duncan, and N. Willms, ‘This Revolution is Not Being Televised’, Contexts 5, no. 3 (2006): 34–8; Whannel, Media Sport Stars: Masculinities and Moralities; Crolley and Teso, ‘Gendered Narratives in Spain’, 193.

118. Brandt and Carstens, ‘The Discourse of the Male Gaze’.

119. Clavio and Eagleman, ‘Gender and Sexually Suggestive Images in Sports Blogs’; Duncan, ‘Sports Photographs and Sexual Difference’; Fink and Kensicki, ‘An Imperceptible Difference’; Kane and Greendorfer, ‘The Media’s Role in Accommodating and Resisting Stereotyped Images of Women in Sport.’

120. A.-M. Hellborg and S. Hedenborg ‘The Rocker and the Heroine: Gendered Media Representations of Equestrian Sports at the 2012 Olympics’ Sport in Society 18, no. 2 (2015): 248–61.

121. Connell, Masculinities, 125.

122. H. Tolvhed, Nationen på spel : kropp, kön och svenskhet i populärpressens representationer av olympiska spel 1948-1972. [The Nation at Stake: Body, Gender and Swedishness in the Popular Press’s Representations of the Olympic Games 1948-1972.] (Umeå: h:ström – Text & kultur, 2008); Andersson, “Spela fotboll bondjävlar!”.

123. T. Andersson and H. Hognestad, ‘Glocal Culture, Sporting Decline? Globalization and Football in Scandinavia’, Sport in Society (2017): 1–13. doi:10.1080/17430437.2017.1389015.