Assessment of energy availability and associated risk factors in professional female soccer players

Abstract

This study aimed to assess energy availability (EA), alongside possible risk factors of reduced or low EA of professional female soccer players during a competitive season. Thirteen players (age: 23.7 ± 3.4 y, stature: 1.69 ± 0.08 m, body mass: 63.7 ± 7.0 kg) engaged in a 5-day (two rest days, one light training, heavy training and match day) monitoring period. Energy intake (EI) and expenditure during exercise (EEE) were measured. EA was calculated and categorised as optimal, reduced or low (>45, 30-45, <30 kcal·kg FFM⁻¹·day⁻¹, respectively). Relationships between EA and bone mineral density, resting metabolic rate (RMR), plasma micronutrient status, biochemical markers and survey data were assessed. EA was optimal for 15%, reduced for 62% and low for 23% of players. Higher EA was observed on rest days compared to others (P<0.05). EA was higher for the light compared to the heavy training day (P<0.001). EEE differed significantly between days (P<0.05). EI (2124 ± 444 kcal), carbohydrate (3.31 ± 0.64 g·kg·day⁻¹) and protein (1.83 ± 0.41 g·kg·day⁻¹) intake remained similar (P>0.05). Survey data revealed 23% scored $\ge$8 on the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire and met criteria for low RMR (ratio <0.90). Relationships between EA and risk factors were inconclusive. Most players displayed reduced EA and did not alter EI or carbohydrate intake according to training or match demands. Although cases of low EA were identified, further work is needed to investigate possible long-term effects and risk factors of low and reduced EA separately to inform player recommendations.

Keywords:

• Team sport
• performance
• health

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Dr. Jo Price, Dr. Ges Steinbergs and Craig Umenyi for their assistance in the data collection process.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding

Authors IR, RR and SM are employees of the Gatorade Sports Science Institute, a division of PepsiCo, Inc. The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of PepsiCo Inc. No funding was received for this manuscript.

Correction Statement

This article has been republished with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.