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Abstract
This article discusses the tensions in security sector reform that stem from a conceptual–contextual divide in statebuilding practice. It uses the case of the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) drawdown to understand how tensions between international policy and local practice manifest and impact on reform of internal security capacity in real time. The theme of hybridity links the analytical framework with the reality of SSR performance and explains the fallacies of liberal-institutionalist reform choices. Research findings offer important lessons that point towards the need for developing local institutions and capacities in place of externally driven social engineering projects that enhance dependency. This focus on empowering the local complements, and is commensurate with, the ultimate goal of SSR, namely, the reconstruction of legitimate and people-centred security institutions.
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank all my respondents for their time, patience and willingness to participate in the research process. Special thanks are due to David Chandler and two anonymous referees for helpful feedback.
Notes on Contributor
Sukanya Podder is Lecturer in International Development at Cranfield University, Shrivenham (UK). Recent work has been published in Civil Wars, International Peacekeeping, Contemporary Security Policy and Politics, Religion and Ideology. Research interests include statebuilding, non-state security governance, rebel group recruitment, ex-combatant reintegration and youth involvement in conflict and peacebuilding. ([email protected])
Notes
1 I borrow this term from Jane Chanaa's work on issues and challenges in SSR (2002, p. 61).
2 See, Richmond (2009, pp. 324–344) for a discussion on models of intervention that may range between enforcement, orthodoxy and emancipation. Enforcement is a top-down approach that seeks to fill a vacuum of authority through externally designed institutions for re-establishing security, law and order.
3 This is terminology of a responsible transition used by the UNMIL staff and represents the policy thinking at the time of my field research.
4 Author interview with Senior Advisor on Security Sector Reform to the SRSG, UNMIL; Author interview with Senior Rule of Law Advisor, Office of the D/SRSG, UNMIL and the Chief Corrections Advisor, Corrections Advisory Unit, UNMIL, Monrovia, 24–26 Nov 2011.
5 This figure could not be verified, based on UNMIL estimates and data collected during fieldwork.
6 In 2006, a Governance Reform Commission initiated report identified these overlaps. The GoL adopted its National Security Strategy in January 2008. This document endorsed the dissolution of the several agencies instituted by the Taylor regime such as the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI), the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) and the Ministry of National Security (MNS). The National Security and Intelligence Act (2011) will result in integration of the BIN staff with the LNP.
7 Author interview with the Senior Advisor on Security Sector Reform to the SRSG, UNMIL and the Senior Rule of Law Advisor, Office of the D/SRSG, UNMIL, Monrovia, 24–26 Nov 2011.
8 Author interview with the Head PRS II Pillar on Security and the Rule of Law, Monrovia, 28 Nov 2011.
9 On the Army reform process in Iraq and Afghanistan, see Giustozzi (Citation2007, pp. 45–46) and Al-Marashi and Salama (Citation2008, pp. 209–210).
10 Army reform has also included rehabilitation of three military bases and training for the Ministry of Defence (MoD) staff.
11 Author interview with officials from the United States Defense Section in Liberia, 23 Nov 2011, Monrovia
12 Author interview with official from Ministry of Defence, Government of Liberia, Monrovia, 22 Nov 2011
13 Author interview with official from Ministry of Defence, Government of Liberia, Monrovia, 22 Nov 2011
14 Author interview with officials from the United States Defence Section in Liberia 23 Nov 2011, Monrovia.
15 Author interview with the Deputy Police Commissioner, UNPOL, Monrovia, 24 Nov 2011. For a further discussion on police reform see Baker (Citation2009, pp. 372–389).
16 Author interview with Deputy Inspector General of the Liberian National Police, Monrovia, 25 Nov 2011.
17 Author interview with Deputy Inspector General of the Liberian National Police, Monrovia, 25 Nov 2011.
18 Author interview with civil society activist from LINLEA, Monrovia, 23 Nov 2011.
19 Author interview with Deputy Police Commissioner, UNPOL, Monrovia, 24 Nov 2011.
20 Author interview with the UNMIL Corrections Advisor, Corrections Advisory Unit and Assistant Minister for Corrections, Government of Liberia, Monrovia, 29 Nov 2011.
21 Author interview with Assistant Minister for Corrections, Monrovia, 29 Nov 2011.
22 Author interview with representative from the American Bar Association, University of Liberia Law School, Monrovia, 23 Nov 2011.
23 Author interview with official from the Rule of Law section, UNDP, Monrovia, 24 Nov 2011; Author interview with the Senior Rule of Law Advisor, Office of the D/SRSG, UNMIL and the Corrections Advisor, Corrections Advisory Unit, UNMIL, Monrovia, 24–26 Nov 2011.
24 Author interview with Senior Advisor on Security Sector Reform to the SRSG, UNMIL and meeting with Solicitor General of Liberia, Monrovia, 1 Dec 2011.
25 Author interview with the Chief Technical Advisor and Head of Country office, UNOPS, Monrovia, 25 Nov 2011.
26 Azimi and Tah (Citation2011) and Manning (Citation2009) offer cross-national lessons on justice development in fragile and conflict-affected states that mirror difficulties experienced in Liberia.
27 Desai and Sage (2010, p. 5) note that in neighbouring Sierra Leone, 85 per cent of the population are governed by customary law, in a country with roughly 5 million inhabitants, there were only 125 legally trained personnel in 2003, 95 per cent of whom were based in the capital Freetown.
28 Author interview with the Deputy Police Commissioner, UNPOL, Monrovia, 24 Nov 2011.
29 Author interview with the Deputy Police Commissioner, UNPOL, Monrovia, 24 Nov 2011.
30 Author interview with the Senior Advisor on SSR to the SRSG, UNMIL, 24–26 Nov 2011.
31 Author interview with the Assistant Minister for Corrections, Government of Liberia and the Corrections Advisor, Corrections Advisory Unit, UNMIL, Monrovia, 29 Nov 2011.
32 Author interview with the Corrections Advisor, Corrections Advisory Unit.
33 Author interview with the Special Assistant to the UN Police Commissioner, UNMIL, 22 Nov 2011.
34 Field observation by author during six-month field research in seven counties of Liberia (2008–9).
35 Author interview with Deputy Inspector General LNP and the Head of Budget and Finance for the LNP, Monrovia, 25 Nov 2011.
36 Author interview with civil society activist from LINLEA, Monrovia, 23 Nov 2011.
37 Author interview with Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner of LPTA, 26 Nov 2011.
38 Author interview with Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner of LPTA, 26 Nov 2011.
39 Author interview with Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner of LPTA, 26 Nov 2011.
40 Author interview with the Acting Auditor-General of Liberia, Monrovia, 24 Nov 2011.
41 Author interview with the Senior Senator Maryland county, Head of the Committee on Security, Monrovia, 30 Nov 2011.
42 Author interview with the Acting Auditor-General of Liberia, Monrovia, 24 Nov 2011; Meeting with members of the Governance Reform Commission, 25 Nov 2011.
43 Author interview with the Commissioner, Bureau of Customs and Excise, Department of Revenue, Monrovia, 28 Nov 2011.
44 The Liberian DDRR programme registered a total caseload of 103,019 ex-combatants from different warring factions, also included 12,245 ex-AFL soldiers.
45 Sobel here does not refer to the Sierra Leone phenomenon of soldier by day and rebel by night but mainly to the cross-border and cross-group affiliation of ex-combatants.
46 Field observation by author.