Individual attempts to help Jews in Independent State of Croatia (NDH): petition letters by ordinary Croats

ABSTRACT

We aimed to explore the efforts by ordinary Croats to help Jews in Independent State of Croatia (NDH) during World War II. Those efforts consisted of writing petition letters to NDH government in defense of their fellow Jews. Our research questions regarded the arguments presented in the petitions. We used 80 petitions and divided them into six categories based on their content. Then we compared those arguments with the propaganda statements about Jews from Croatian newspapers. As the regime’s propaganda was severely antisemitic, the analysis of the content of petitions attempted to explain the reasons behind them. This article also raised new questions which could provide the basis for further research.

KEYWORDS:

• NDH
• Ordinary Croats
• Help
• Jews
• Petition letters

Acknowledgments

We thank Esther Gitman for providing the documents.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Jareb, Ustaško-domobranski pokret, 112, 114.

2 Goldstein and Goldstein, Holokaust u Zagrebu, 94, 96. For other studies on the Ustasha movements and its program see: Miljan, Croatia and the Rise of Fascism; Iordachi and Miljan, “Why We Have Become Revolutionaries and Murderers,” 1–20; Dulić and Miljan, “The Ustašas and Fascism”; Yeomans, “The Ustaša regime and the politics of terror in the independent state of Croatia, 1941–1945”, 383–391.

3 Although NDH is referred to in historiography as a puppet state, there are other opinions that suggest that the Ustasha regime acted independently (Korb, “Nation building and mass violence The Independent State of Croatia, 1941–45,” 292–303).

4 Tomasevich, Rat i revolucija u Jugoslaviji, chap. 2.

5 Goldstein and Goldstein, Holokaust u Zagrebu, 106.

6 Gitman, When courage prevailed, 27.

7 Ibid., 65, 189.

8 Ibid., XXV–XXVII.

9 Ibid., XXVI.

10 The same collection contains denunciations of some Jews by some ordinary Croats. Some of them were driven by financial benefits, desire to show their loyalty to the regime and, among other things, personal reasons (Goldstein and Goldstein, Holokaust u Zagrebu, 630–632). Such documentation opens the door for future research, for example comparison of denunciations to petition letters written in favor of Jews.

11 Fitzpatrick, “Supplicants and Citizens: Public letter-writing in Soviet Russia,” 80.

12 Kozlov, “Denunciation and Its Functions in Soviet Governance,” 871.

13 Wolf Gruner, “To not ‘Live as a Pariah’” 46.

14 Ibid.

15 Ibid., 51, 53, 55–61.

16 Ibid., 48.

17 Ionescu, “Legal resistance through petitions during the Holocaust,” 122–148.

18 Frommer, “Honorary Czechs and Germans,” 98.

19 Friedman, “Writing for survival: Letters of Sarajevo Jews.”

20 Ibid., 196, 203.

21 Yeomans, “In Search of Myself,” 22.

22 Goldstein, “Solidarnost i pomoć Židovima u Hrvatskoj”; Goldstein and Goldstein, Holokaust u Zagrebu.

23 Gitman, When courage prevailed, 40.

24 Ibid., 39.

25 Ibid., 24. Other literature mentions that in 1939/1940 there was about 30.300 Jews on the territory which was later included in NDH (Tomasevich, Rat i revolucija, chap. 13). It is worth mentioning that there is ongoing research regarding the number of Jews who lived on the territory of NDH prior to its proclamation.

26 Brandl, “Židovski identitet/i u Hrvatskoj,” 170.

27 Gitman, When courage prevailed, 9.

28 Tomasevich, Rat i revolucija, Chap. 13.

29 Ibid.

30 Gitman, When courage prevailed, 10.

31 Ibid., 13-14; Brandl, Oduzimanje židovske imovine u Hrvatskoj, 322.

32 Gitman, When courage prevailed, 13–14.

33 Ibid., 3, 11–12.

34 Tomasevich, Rat i revolucija, Chap. 13.

35 Gitman, When courage prevailed, 12.

36 Ibid., 49–50, 58–60.

37 Goldstein and Goldstein, Holokaust u Zagrebu, 31–65.

38 Tomasevich, Rat i revolucija, chap. 13; Gitman, When courage prevailed, 15.

39 Hrvatski narod [Croatian people], “Zakonska odredba za obranu naroda i države“ [Protection of the Croatian People and the State Act], April 18, 1941, 3; Mataić, Nezavisna Država Hrvatska, 15.

40 Gitman, When courage prevailed, 28.

41 Tomasevich, Rat i revolucija, Chap. 13.

42 Mataić, Nezavisna Država Hrvatska, 107–115.

43 For the full list see Zuckerman, “Političke prilike tijekom ustrojstva NDH,” 51–86.

44 Goldstein and Goldstein, Holokaust u Zagrebu, 106; Brandl, Oduzimanje židovske imovine, 323.

45 Goldstein and Goldstein, Holokaust u Zagrebu, 108; Brandl, Oduzimanje židovske imovine, 323.

46 Tomasevich, Rat i revolucija, Chap. 13.

47 Brandl, “Židovi u Hrvatskoj od 1944./5. do 1952.,” 110–111, Ref. 203.

48 Tomasevich, Rat i revolucija, Chap. 13.

49 Zuckerman Itković, “Funkcija protužidovske propagande,” 79–80.

50 Ibid., 82.

51 Tomasevich, Rat i revolucija, chap. 13.

52 Hrvatski narod [Croatian People], „Poglavnikova izvanredna zakonska odredba i zapovijed“ [Poglavnik's extraordinary legislative ordinance and command], June 27, 1941, p. 1. See also: Brandl, Židovi u Hrvatskoj nakon Holokausta, 103.

53 Brandl, “Strategies of survival.”

54 Tomasevich, Rat i revolucija, chap. 13.

55 Goldstein and Goldstein, Holokaust u Zagrebu, 276.

56 Goldstein, “Solidarnost i pomoć Židovima u Hrvatskoj,” 205.

57 Tomasevich, Rat i revolucija, Chap. 13.

58 Flender, Rescue in Denmark; Yahil, The rescue of Danish Jewry; Hallie, Lest innocent blood be shed; Huneke, In the darkness … glimpses of light; Marrus and Paxton, “The Nazis and the Jews in occupied Western Europe,” 687–714; Oliner, “The unsung heroes in Nazi occupied Europe,” 129–136; Kless, “The rescue of Jewish children in Belgium,” 275–287; Moore, “The rescue of Jews from Nazi persecution,” 293–308; Varese and Yaish, “Resolute heroes,” 153–168; Michman, Hiding, sheltering, and borrowing identities; Yagil, “Rescue of Jews in France,” 199–223; Luku, “Why did Albanians and their collaborationist governments rescue Jews,” 33–49; Shchupak, “The rescue of Jews from the Nazi genocide,” 73–96.

59 Poliakov and Sabille, Jews under the Italian occupation.

60 Carpi, “The rescue of Jews in the Italian zone of occupied Croatia,” 465–507.

61 Romano, Jevreji Jugoslavije 1941–1945.

62 Tomasevich, Rat i revolucija, chap. 13.

63 Gitman, When courage prevailed, XXIV, 65, 189.

64 Tomasevich, Rat i revolucija, chap. 13.

65 Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem, chap. 11; Arendt, Eichmann u Jeruzalemu, 171; Tomasevich, Rat i revolucija, chap. 13; Gitman, When courage prevailed, XVII, XXVI, 67; Goldstein and Goldstein, Holokaust u Zagrebu, 132–144.

66 Bartulin, “The question of the 'Honorary Aryans' in the NDH.” For his extensive work on this question see: Bartulin, Honorary Aryans.

67 Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem, chap. 11; Arendt, Eichmann u Jeruzalemu, 171; Tomasevich, Rat i revolucija, chap. 13; Gitman, When courage prevailed, XVI, p. 67; Brandl, Oduzimanje židovske imovine, 325–326.

68 Tomasevich, Rat i revolucija, Chap. 13.

69 Ibid.; Gitman, When courage prevailed, 67.

70 Gitman, When courage prevailed, XXVI.

71 Tomasevich, Rat i revolucija, chap. 13.

72 Goldstein and Goldstein, Holokaust u Zagrebu, 132.

73 Gitman, “The rescue of Jewish physicians,” 76–91.

74 Ibid., 76; Gitman, When courage prevailed, XXVI.

75 Gitman's research on the rescue of Jews in NDH in her doctoral dissertation (and later monograph) deals with the entire NDH territory, includes several categories of rescuers and also describes different methods of rescue. Some other authors have researched the topic of attempts to rescue of Jews in NDH, but they focused only on certain facets (Poliakov and Sabille, Jews under the Italian occupation; Romano, Jevreji Jugoslavije; Carpi, The rescue of Jews in the Italian zone of occupied Croatia,” 465-507; Goldstein and Goldstein, Holocaust u Zagrebu, 132–144, 363–384, 479–487; Goldstein, “Solidarnost i pomoć Židovima u Hrvatskoj”, 205–228).

76 Gitman, “Rescue and survival of Jews”; Gitman, When courage prevailed, XVIII.

77 Gitman, When courage prevailed.

78 Gitman, “A question of judgment,” 47–72; Gitman, Alojzije Stepinac.

79 Goldstein, “Solidarnost i pomoć Židovima u Hrvatskoj,” 205–228.

80 Gitman, When courage prevailed, XXV–XXVI, 39.

81 Gitman, When courage prevailed, XXIII; Steiner-Aviezer, Hrvatski pravednici.

82 We used the term ‘ordinary’ for Croats who wrote and signed the petition as indicated in similar topics in the relevant literature: Fitzpatrick, “Supplicants and citizens,” 78; Gitman, When courage prevailed, 38–39; Yeomans, “In Search of Myself,” 21–40.

83 Gitman, When courage prevailed, 43.

84 Ibid., 43.

85 Zuckerman-Itković, “Funkcija protužidovske propagande,” 80.

86 Novi list [New newspaper], “Povjesna važnost zakonskih odredba o zaštiti arijske krvi” [Historical importance of legislative ordinances on the protection of Aryan blood], May 3, 1941, 5.

87 Novi list, “Dobili su što su zaslužili” [They got what they deserved], May 17, 1941, 12.

88 Novi list, “Napisi na židovskim trgovinama u Zagrebu” [Inscriptions on Jewish stores in Zagreb], June 9, 1941, 10.

89 Gitman, When courage prevailed, 28.

90 It is important to stress that petition letters that we used did not contain requests for Jews collectively (except one), but individually, based on their acquaintances and relations with some Jews. Petitioning on their behalf, the signatories used those individual Jews as examples that contradicted the antisemitic propaganda.

91 Hrvatski državni arhiv (HDA) [Croatian State Archives], Ravnateljstvo ustaškog redarstva (RUR) [Headquarter of Ustasha Police], 252, 28829.

92 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28829, ŽO 1210, p. 1/2.

93 HDA, RUR 252, No. 29884, ŽO 5352, 2059.

94 Goldstein, ed., “Židovski biografski leksikon” [Jewish biographical lexicon]. https://zbl.lzmk.hr/

95 Novi list, “Učinjen je kraj židovskom izrabljivanju djevojaka arijske krvi” [Jewish exploitation of Croatian girls of Aryan blood has been stopped], May 8, 1941, 12.

96 Ibid.

97 Mataić, Nezavisna Država Hrvatska, 113–115.

98 Ibid., 161–163.

99 HDA, RUR 252, 1066.

100 Ibid. We do not have any information on the outcome of the petition, but Schleien survived the war (Goldstein, “Židovski biografski leksikon”).

101 Novi list, “Dok su Židovi i špekulanti gradili raskošne palače, dotle je čisti hrvatski živalj živio u najvećoj bijedi” [While Jews and speculators built sumptuous palaces, pure Croatian people lived in the greatest misery], May 13, 1941, 10.

102 Novi list, “Čišćenje našeg javnog života” [Cleansing of our public life of jewry], June 7, 1941, 6.

103 Novi list, “Napisi na židovskim trgovinama,” 10.

104 Novi list, “Gdje ima u Hrvatskoj najviše Židova?” [Where Croatia has the most Jews?], May 4, 1941, 5.

105 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28702, ŽO 275.

106 HDA, Ponova, Židovski Odsjek 1941, 386/1076. For this petition see also: Gitman, When courage prevailed, 86-87.

107 Gitman, When courage prevailed, 86–87.

108 Novi list, “Povjesna važnost zakonskih odredaba,” 5.

109 Novi list, “Dobili su što su zaslužili,” 12.

110 Novi list, “Dolazak Židova među narode staroga svijeta” [The arrival of the Jews among the peoples of the ancient world], May 24, 1941, 5.

111 Novi list, “Čišćenje našeg javnog života,” 6.

112 Hrvatski narod, “Zašto Židovi i masoni žale za bivšom Jugoslavijom” [Why Jews and freemasons mourn former Yugoslavia], May 28, 1941, 6.

113 Novi list, “Prirodjeno neprijateljstvo Hrvatskog naroda prema židomarksizmu” [The innate hostility of Croatian people towards Jewish Marxism], July 5, 1941, 4.

114 Hrvatski narod, “Boljševizam i židovstvo” [Bolshevism and Jewry], May 25, 1941, 3.

115 Novi list, “Hrvatski gradovi čiste se od Židova” [Croatian cities are being cleansed of Jews], July 23, 1941, 3.

116 USHMM, 1998.A.0027, Reel 1 file 4.

117 Goldstein, “Solidarnost i pomoć Židovima u Hrvatskoj,” 213.

118 Ante Starčević gained the tile 'The Father of the Homeland' because he was the first modern Croatian politician to express publicly the Croatian right to self-determination and independence.

119 HDA, RUR 252, ŽO 54, No. 28664.

120 Švob, “Žrtve holokausta u Hrvatskoj – Auschwitz” [Victims of the Holocaust in Croatia – Auschwitz], preliminary data. https://cendo.hr/upload/dok-8586218362252342064.pdf.

121 HDA, RUR 252, 28324, p. 6/8.

122 Goldstein, “Židovski biografski leksikon.”

123 Novi list, “Prirodjeno neprijateljstvo,” p. 4.

124 HDA, RUR 252, 29962.

125 Spiller continued his musical career in communist Yugoslavia and died in 1982 (Goldstein, “Židovski biografski leksikon”).

126 HDA, RUR 252, 27251.

127 Goldstein, “Židovski biografski leksikon.”

128 HDA, RUR 252, ŽO 64 03, No. 28264.

129 Goldstein, “Židovski biografski leksikon.”

130 HDA, RUR 252, 28324.

131 HDA, RUR 252, ŽO 4720, No. 28132.

132 HDA, RUR 252, 28132.

133 HDA, RUR 252, ŽO 4726, No. 28134.

134 “Spomen područje Jasnovac” [Jasenovac memorial site].

135 HDA, RUR 252, ŽO 7990, No. 28524.

136 HDA, RUR 252, ŽO 142, No. 27087, 28. V. 1941.

137 HDA, RUR 252, ŽO 4178 - 29. VII. 1941., No. 28026. The outcome of the petition is unknown (Goldstein, “Židovski biografski leksikon”).

138 HDA, RUR 252, ŽO 4724, No. 28133, 2633.

139 HDA, RUR 252, ŽO 4110-26. VIII. 1941., No. 28004.

140 Ibid.

141 HDA, RUR 252, 29962.

142 HDA, RUR 252, ŽO 4726, No. 28134.

143 HDA, Ponova, Židovski Odsjek 1941 386/1076; USHMM, 1998.A.0027, Reel 1 file 4; HDA, RUR 252, 28338, p. 2/3, 3/3; HDA, RUR 252, No. 28134, ŽO 4726, p. 1/4, 2/4, 3/4; HDA, RUR 252, No. 28237, ŽO 5985, 17. X. 1941., p. 1/3, 2/3, 3/3; HDA, RUR 252, No. 28026, ŽO 4178–29. VIII. 1941, p. 1/3, 2/3, 3/3.

144 HDA, Ponova, Židovski Odsjek 1941 386/1076; HDA, RUR 252, No. 28026, ŽO 4178–29. VIII. 1941, p. 1/3, 2/3, 3/3.

145 Frommer, “Honorary Czechs and Germans,” 104.

146 Gruner, “To not ‘Live as a ‘Pariah’,” 50, 53, 55–61.

147 Frommer, “Honorary Czechs and Germans,” 107, 109–110.

148 Ibid., 107–108.

149 HDA, RUR 252, 28829.

150 HDA, Ponova, Židovski Odsjek 1941 386/1076; HDA, RUR 252, No. 28026, ŽO 4178–29. VIII. 1941, p. 1/3, 2/3, 3/3; HDA, RUR 252, No. 28524, ŽO 7790, p. 1/2, 2/2; HDA, RUR 252, No. 28133, ŽO 4724.

151 Fromer, “Honorary Aryans,” 104.

152 Ibid., 114.

153 Gitman, When courage prevailed, 38–39.

154 Ibid., 40.

155 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28829, ŽO 1210, p. 1/2;

156 Petition for Makso Fröhlich was approved in October 1942, but he was arrested in May 1943 and probably deported to Auschwitz: HDA, RUR 252, No. 5756; Goldstein, “Židovski biografski leksikon.”

157 HDA, RUR 252, 302/29962, ŽO 5634, 12. IX. 1942., p. 1/6. Although petition for Miroslav Spiller was approved, when he applied for the recognition of ‘Aryan rights’, he fled and joined the partisans because there was a danger of his arrest. See: Goldstein, “Židovski biografski leksikon.”

158 HDA, RUR 252, 27479.

159 HDA, RUR 252, No. 29479, ŽO 4095.

160 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM) 1998. A. 0019, Reel 2 file 2.

161 HDA, RUR 252, 28079.

162 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28318, ŽO 6925.

163 HDA, RUR 252, 1400.

164 HDA, RUR 252, 28797, ŽO 1005.

165 USHMM Reel 1 file 4. 1998.A.0027.

166 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28030, ŽO IX.1941.

167 HDA, RUR 252, 28829.

168 HDA, RUR 252, No. 29884, ŽO 5352.

169 HDA, RUR 252, No. 27281, ŽO 326–4. VI. 1941.

170 USHMM Reel 1 file 4. 1998.A.0027.

171 Ibid.

172 HDA, RUR 252, 28324.

173 HDA, RUR 252, 28324, ŽO 7013 1/8.

174 HDA, Ponova, Židovski Odsjek 1941 386/1076.

175 HDA, RUR 252, 28338.

176 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28387, ŽO. 7299.

177 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28702, ŽO 275.

178 HDA, RUR 252, 358/41.

179 HDA, RUR 252, 28324, p. 6/8.

180 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28324, p. 7/8.

181 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28324, ŽO 7013, p. 1/8.

182 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28004, ŽO 4110–26. VIII. 1941., p. 1/2, 2/2.

183 HDA, RUR 252, No. 27108, ŽO 181–29. VI. 1941., p. 1/2.

184 HDA, RUR 252, 27285, p. 3/3

185 HDA, RUR 252, 28324, p. 5/8.

186 HDA, RUR 252, No. 27795, ŽO. 1888–21. VII. 41.

187 HDA, RUR 252, No. 27673, ŽO. 1342–14. VII. 41.

188 HDA, RUR 252, No. 27762, ŽO. 1765–18. VI. 41., p. 1/2, 2/2.

189 HDA, RUR 252, 28629, p. 2/5.

190 HDA, RUR 252, 28704, ŽO 278.

191 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28248, ŽO 6322–25. X. 1941., p. 1/2.

192 HDA, RUR 252, 28561, ŽO 8114, 1/3.

193 HDA, RUR 252, 28561, 3/3.

194 USHMM, Reel 1, 1998.A.0119., 29116/3345.

195 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28346, ŽO. 7099, p. 1/5.

196 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28664, ŽO. 54.

197 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28786, ŽO. 980, p. 1/2, 2/2.

198 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28941, ŽO 2227, p. 1/3.

199 HDA, RUR 252, 28941, p. 2/3.

200 HDA, RUR 252, 28726, ŽO. 366, 1/2, 2/2.

201 USHMM, 1998.A.0027, Reel 1 file 4.

202 HDA, RUR 252, 27981, p. 2/2.

203 HDA, RUR 252, 27251, p. 2/2.

204 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28264, ŽO 64 03, p. 1/2, 2/2.

205 HDA, RUR 252, 29962, p. 3/6.

206 HDA, RUR 252, 29962, p. 4/6.

207 HDA, RUR 252, 28324, p. 2/8.

208 HDA, RUR 252, No. 27437, ŽO. 764–24. VI. 41.

209 HDA, RUR 252, No. 27775, ŽO. 1810–19. VII. 41.

210 HDA, RUR 252, No. 27087, Ž.O. 142, 28. V. 1941, p. 1/3, 2/3, 3/3.

211 HDA, RUR 252, No. 27147, ŽO 247–31. V. 41.

212 HDA, RUR 252, No. 27297, Ž. O. 358–5. VI. 1941.

213 HDA, RUR 252, 28629, p. 4/5.

214 HDA, RUR 252, No. 27937, ŽO. 2600–31. VII. 1941, p. 1/3, 2/3, 3/3.

215 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28524, ŽO 7790, p. 1/2, 2/2.

216 HDA, RUR 252, 28951, p. 2/3, 3/3.

217 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28132, ŽO 4720, p. 1/4, 2/4.

218 HDA, RUR 252, 26514, 2/2.

219 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28133, ŽO 4724.

220 HDA, RUR 252, 28132, p. 4/4.

221 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28338, ŽO 7101, p. 1/3.

222 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28338, ŽO 7101, p. 1/3.

223 HDA, RUR 252, 28338, p. 2/3, 3/3.

224 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28134, ŽO 4726, p. 1/4, 2/4, 3/4.

225 USHMM, 1998.A.0019, Reel 2 file 2.

226 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28237, ŽO 5985, 17. X. 1941., p. 1/3, 2/3, 3/3.

227 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28293, ŽO 6758.

228 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28943, ŽO 2232, p. 1/4, 3/4.

229 HDA, RUR 252, 28877, p. 3/6.

230 HDA, RUR 252, 28877, p. 2/6.

231 HDA, RUR 252, No. 27480, ŽO. 862 26. VI. 1941, 2/2.

232 HDA, RUR 252, No. 27290, Ž.O. 347–4. VI. 1941, p. 1/4.

233 HDA, RUR 252, 302/Inv. 10206, ŽO 5756, 29 X 1942, p. 1/2.

234 HDA, RUR 252, No. 29873, ŽO 5317, p. 1/3, 2/3.

235 HDA, RUR 252, 29873, p. 3/3.

236 HDA, RUR 252, No. 28026, ŽO 4178–29. VIII. 1941, p. 1/3, 2/3, 3/3.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Andrijana Perković Paloš

Andrijana Perković Paloš (Split, 1988) earned her doctoral degree in Interdisciplinary Humanities (field History) at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences University of Split, where she is a research fellow and adjunct senior instructor. She participated at two Horizon 2020 projects on research integrity. Her field of interest is controversial and sensitive topics from contemporary history as well as topics concerning relations of Croats and Jews. She is the author of Government of Democratic Unity (2020) and several research articles and chapters in books.

Marin Pelaić

Marin Pelaić (Split, 1987) earned his M.A. degree in History at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Split having defended the thesis Imperial Policy of Fascist Italy on the occupied territories of today’s Croatia and Slovenia (1941–1943). He participated in an international scientific meeting held in Split in 2015 (the topic covered was Foreign Policy of Republic of Croatia during 1995). As a student, he also participated in numerous history students’ conferences (in Croatia, Slovenia, and Hungary).