Critical review of uniform color effects in sports

ABSTRACT

Groundbreaking research linking uniform colors and performance in sport has gained momentum in recent years demonstrating a superiority effect associated with certain colors, especially red, and an increase in aggression when in black. However, the findings are not uniform and some studies find no association. Our objective was to identify, compare, and disseminate a comprehensive list of studies associated with uniform colors and performance. This critical review identified 33 studies in sport, which explored the phenomenon and met the criteria for inclusion. We used the color-in-context theory (Elliot, A. J., & Maier, M. A. (2007). Color and psychological functioning. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(5), 250–254; Elliot, A. J., & Maier, M. A. (2014). Color psychology: Effects of perceiving color on psychological functioning in humans. Annual Review of Psychology, 65(1), 95–120 ) as the foundation for our analysis of the findings and, in turn, exposed some incoherence of some constructs and boundary conditions set by this framework. In the current work, we specifically distinguish between performance research and perception-only work and illuminate the differences as they pertain to theoretical underpinning. Based on present findings, we conclude that the evidence for uniform colors to influence the outcome of athletic competitions is weak and that more investigation is required to substantiate the effect, if it does exist. We conclude by proposing future avenues of research both as they pertain to features of the sports studied but also for the methodology utilized.

KEYWORDS:

• Performance
• color
• sport
• aggression
• red
• black

Acknowledgement

Michael Epstein, Associate Professor, Head of Reference at the University of San Diego provided significant assistance in conducting literature search for this article.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).