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Articles

Bergson and Athleticism

Pages 231-244 | Received 14 Feb 2012, Accepted 22 Oct 2012, Published online: 03 Dec 2012
 

Abstract

The work of Henri Bergson has gone almost completely unnoticed in philosophy of sport literature. This in no way indicates the level of relevance his programme may carry for the subject. Many of the entrenched debates that have historically helped to shape the field are mirrored by Bergson's own concerns regarding perception and skill acquisition. As such, a thorough study of how the Bergsonian programme might approach the topic of athletic action is in no wise an idle pursuit – in fact, very much the opposite. My intention in this paper is twofold: first, to indicate the natural commerce that exists between Bergson's philosophy and the philosophy of sport; second, and perhaps more ambitiously, to demonstrate that his approach to perception and action not only anticipates, but in some cases may help to edify, certain unresolved issues within the field. The paper develops in three parts. In part I, I provide a brief summary of Bergson's theory of perception as it is developed in Matter and Memory (1896). Parts II and III will apply that theory to two of the central aspects of human motor activity: in part II, I investigate what it is to be in possession of skilled motor behaviour – to make that behaviour ‘automatic’, as it were; in part III, the controversial subject of what it is to acquire and modify skilled motor behaviour will be examined.

L'œuvre d'Henri Bergson est presque passée inaperçue dans la philosophie du sport, ce qui ne fournit aucune information sur son niveau de pertinence pour le sujet. De nombreux débats qui ont historiquement contribué à façonner le champ se reflètent pourtant dans les préoccupations de Bergson relatives à l'acquisition des compétences et la perception. Dès lors, une étude approfondie de la façon dont la pensée bergsonienne pourrait aborder la question de l'acte sportif n'est nullement illégitime, bien au contraire. Dans cet article, mon intention est double : d'une part, indiquer la relation naturelle qui existe entre la philosophie de Bergson et la philosophie du sport, d'autre part, et peut-être de manière plus ambitieuse, démontrer que son approche de la perception et de l'action non seulement annonce, mais dans certains cas peut aider à structurer certaines questions non résolues dans le champ. Le texte est organisé en trois parties. Dans la première, je propose un bref résumé de la théorie bergsonienne de la perception telle qu'elle est développée dans Matière et mémoire (1896). Les seconde et troisième parties appliquent cette théorie à deux des aspects centraux de l'activité motrice humaine : dans la partie II, j'étudie ce que signifie disposer d'un comportement moteur expert – en faisant de ce comportement une sorte d’« automatisme » ; dans la partie III, j’étudie le sujet controversé de ce signifie acquérir et modifier un comportement moteur expert.

El trabajo de Henri Bergson ha sido ignorado practicamete por completo por la literatura filosófica del deporte. Esto no es indicativo de ninguna manera del nivel de relevancia que su programa puede tener para la disciplina. Muchos de los reñidos debates que han ayudado a formar la disciplina están reflejados en los intereses de Bergson en cuanto a la percepción y la adquisición de la habilidad. Como tal, un estudio a fondo de como la agenda Bergsoniana podría tratar con el tema de la acción atlética no es de ninguna manera un mero devaneo - de hecho, todo lo contrario. Mi intención en este artículo es doble: primero indicar la afinidad natural que existe entre la filosofía de Bergson y la filosofía del deporte; segundo, y quizás más ambicioso, el demostrar que su enfoque de la percepción y la acción no solo anticipa sino que en algunos casos ayuda a aclarar ciertos asuntos sin resolver dentro de la disciplina. El artículo se desarrolla en tres partes. En la primera parte doy un breve resumen de la teoría de la percepción de Bergson tal y como se desarrolla en Materia y Memoria (1986). Las partes segunda y tercera aplican esta teoría a dos aspectos centrales de la actividad motora humana: en la segunda parte investigo en qué consiste el estar en posesión de un comportamiento motor hábil - para hacer el comportamiento “automático” por así decirlo; en la tercera parte se examinará el controvertido tema de en qué consiste la adquisición y modificación del comportamiento motor hábil.

Die Arbeit von Henri Bergson ist in der sportphilosophischen Literatur so gut wie unbemerkt geblieben. Dies spiegelt aber in keiner Weise die Relevanz wider, die sein Programm in diesem Gebiet haben könnte. Viele der lange bestehenden Debatten, die geschichtlich gesehen geholfen haben, das Fachgebiet näher zu bestimmen, finden sich in Bergsons Überlegungen in Bezug auf Wahrnehmung und Fertigkeitsaneignung wieder. Daher ist eine tiefgreifende Betrachtung der Frage, wie man aus Sicht Bergsons das Thema athletischer Bewegung untersuchen kann, keineswegs eine unnütze Beschäftigung – eigentlich ist eher das Gegenteil der Fall. Mit diesem Artikel beabsichtige ich zweierlei: Erstens, auf den natürlichen wechselseitigen Bezug hinzuweisen, der zwischen der Philosophie Bergsons und der Sportphilosophie existiert; Zweitens, und dies ist vielleicht noch bedeutender, aufzuzeigen, dass sein Ansatz zu Wahrnehmung und Bewegung nicht nur offene Fragen in diesem Gebiet bereits antizipiert, sondern in manchen Fällen sogar helfen könnte, bestimmte ungelöste Probleme neu zu durchdenken. Dieser Artikel gliedert sich in drei Teile. In Teil I gebe ich eine kurze Zusammenfassung von Bergsons Theorie von Wahrnehmung, wie sie in Materie und Gedächtnis (1896) entwickelt wurde. In den Teilen II und III soll diese Theorie auf zwei zentrale Aspekte der menschlichen Bewegung Anwendung finden: In Teil II untersuche ich, was es heißt, Bewegungsfertigkeiten zu haben – dieses Verhalten quasi zu „automatisieren“; in Teil III wird das kontroverse Thema untersucht, wie man sich Bewegungsfertigkeiten aneignet und wie man sie verändern kann.

Henri Bergson 先前的作品幾乎在運動哲學文獻中無人注意到。這並不代表他的作品與運動哲學的研究主題毫無相關性。過去有許多研究上的爭論其實皆可從Bergson 的有關知覺與技能習得的關切得到一些印證。因此, 我們若能對Bergson 的作品好好研究或可了解到運動行為這個主題值得探討。本文的意圖有二: 首先, 是介紹Bergson哲學與運動哲學之間重要自然聯結; 其次, 或許更具有企圖心的是, 去呈現他的知覺與行為的進路不只可預見, 也可在某些個案中幫助改善此一領域中未能解決的課題。本論文寫作有三部分: 第一部分, 我提供一個簡單對Bergson的知覺理論在Matter and Memory (1986)的介紹。第二部分及第三部分會應用到理論至兩個主要人類運動活動的觀點層次: 在第二部分中, 我會調查技能活動行為習得的意義- 在於使該行為看起來 “自動化”; 在第三部分: 我會對習得與修正純熟技能動作行為中所產生的爭論課題加以探討。

Notes

The difficulty has led some to dismiss Bergson's whole philosophical approach as ‘mystical’: cf. Russell (1957, 13–17).

Cf., e.g., Criscimagna-Hemming and Shadmehr (Citation2008); Atwell, Cooke, and Yeo (Citation2002); and Brashers-Krug, Shadmehr, and Bizzi (Citation1996).

Degrees of freedom in action sequences are just the combinatory ways an action can be performed through different muscle-to-joint groupings (human body = 790 muscles x 100 joints, ignoring axes of rotation: Kugler, 1986). The ‘problem’, outlined by Bernstein, is that the executive sequence ordering system that is supposed to account for each unique combination appears to have less degrees of freedom than do the innervational impulses – cf. Bernstein (Citation1967) and Reed (Citation1982, 108–9). It is a problem best expressed through the many empirical findings by Bernstein and his associates that the same action could be performed by different sets of muscle-to-joint sequences; and alternatively, that the same sets of muscle-to-joint sequences could produce more than one corresponding action.

Gibson's theory of affordances is an evolutionary theory in which the environment offers to organisms invariable conditions that are specially apt to induce particular actions by those organisms – ‘what we perceive when we look at [objects] are their affordances, not their qualities’ (Gibson Citation1977, 75).

In particular, I'm thinking here of ‘actions systems theory’ (cf. Reed Citation1982; Turvey 1991) and, more directly, ‘dynamic systems theory’ (cf. Kelso Citation1995; McMorris, Citation2004; and Glazier, Davids and Bartlett Citation2003).

Cf. (among others), Dreyfus (Citation2002); Dreyfus, Dreyfus and Duesund (Citation2003); Dreyfus and Dreyfus (2005; 2007).

For a clear explanation of Gibson's theory of perception, cf. Davids, Handford and Williams (Citation1994, 508–9).

For empirical studies supporting a Gibsonian direct-perception theory, cf. Turvey (Citation1977; 991); Turvey and Kugler (1984); von Hofsten (Citation1979); Hay and Koth (1988); and Savelsbergh, Whiting and Bootsma (Citation1991).

It is my contention that there is significant enough overlap between all of these thinkers that drawing this relation is, for hermeneutic purposes, perfectly legitimate. All three expressly avoid a reduction of the perceptual process to a central processing model. All three promote an embodied or phenomenological approach to action. The similarities I point to in this section do not extend beyond these areas of commensurability.

Incidentally, this anecdote finds its support in history: 15th seeded Michael Chang defeated world number one Ivan Lendl in an early round of the 1989 French Open using an underhand serve. Some claim that it was the lack of conventionality of Chang's serve that led to the victory (see Garber 2009).

For a good treatment of the limitation of the Cartesian approach to movement, cf. Hogen (Citation2009).

For a good overview of these theories, cf. Luenberger (Citation1979); or Strogatz (Citation1994).

For a more detailed philosophical treatment of virtual state spaces and their ‘attractors’, cf. DeLanda (Citation2002, 9–41; especially the section devoted to ‘Deleuze's ontological interpretation of state space’, 26–30).

For more on dynamic systems theory in relation to biomechanics, cf. Glazier, Davids and Bartlett (Citation2003).

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