The politics of space in Borana Oromo, Ethiopia: demographics, elections, identity and customary institutions

Abstract

This article addresses the protracted state of political violence in and around the Borana and Guji zones of Oromia region after the introduction of ethnic federalism in Ethiopia. To account for the persistence of the conflict, we must elaborate on the connections between ethnic identity, natural resource and customary institutions by introducing the notion of “primary identity”. Since the turn of the millennium there is in Ethiopia a theoretically grounded attempt to co-opt customary institutions and elders into modern governance, particularly in the pastoral sector. Field-research focused on the interplay of customary and modern politics during two electoral events, the 2004 referendum organised to solve the border issue between the Somali Regional State and Oromia, and the 2005 national elections. Analysis of local political dynamics indicates that the strategy of the federal government was shaped by the need to control the insurgency of the Oromo Liberation Front. Local political motivations also played a role. The combination of these two factors resulted in systematic abuse of human rights and the manipulation of development and refugees policies, involving an informal “demographic politics of space” that displaced the Borana Oromo from a large area of their customary territory, relegating them into a state of permanent food dependency. It is argued that the restoration and strengthening of customary governance holds the best prospect for improving this situation.

Keywords:

• conflict
• Ethiopia
• customary institutions
• human rights
• ethnic identity
• elections

Notes

1. Fiseha, Theory versus Practice, ch. 5; Hagmann and Mulugeta, “Pastoral Conflicts”; Markakis, “Anatomy of a Conflict”; Bruchhaus and Sommer, Hot Spot Horn Revisited, part 2; Kefale, “Federalism.”

2. Most of the data on the referendum and the elections were collected in a research project, “Contested power: Negotiating ‘traditional’ authority in ‘modern’ elections in Ethiopia,” co-ordinated by Kjetil Tronvoll for Norwegian Centre for Human Rights (NCHR), University of Oslo. This is a shortened version of a forthcoming chapter appearing in Tronvoll and Hagmann, Contested Power. This article does not address peace negotiations and further large-scale ethnic clashes occurred in the region after 2006.

3. Baxter, “Boran Age-Sets”; Legesse, Gada; Bassi, Decisions in the Shade.

4. Bassi, Decisions in the Shade; Bassi and Megerssa, “Failed Modernization”; Donham, “Old Abyssinia,” 44–5.

5. Lata, Ethiopian State.

6. Kelemework, Indigenous Institutions, 93–4; Lister, “Pastoralists Representation,” 26; Vaughan and Tronvoll, Culture of Power, 39; Hagmann, “Elders as Peacemakers.”

7. Hagmann, “Beyond Clannishness,” 21–2.

8. Waters-Bayer, “Local Level Issues,” 2, 7.

9. PCI progressively scaled up its activity, facilitating a number of regional gatherings of pastoralists.

10. Watson, “Institutional Alliances,” 15.

11. Tache and Irwin, “Traditional Institutions.”

12. Lister, “Pastoralists Representation,” 13–14, 27–30.

13. FDRE, Pastoral Development Policy; OPDC, “Three Years Strategic Plan”; RGE, “Oromia Rural Land Policy.”

14. These are two of the traditional regions inhabited or accessed by the Borana, their homelands. The same words are used to indicate administrative divisions, but with different geographical boundaries. In this article I use the italics to refer to the customary territorial units.

15. Baxter, “Boran Age-Sets”; Legesse, Gada.

16. Hinnant, “The Guji.”

17. Torry, “Gabra Age Organisation”; Kassam, “Gabra Ethnohistorical Origins”; Schlee, “Meta-Ethnic”; Tablino, Gabra, 34.

18. Kassam, “Gabra Ethnohistorical Origins.” See also Tablino, Gabra. Elements of ritual co-ordination between the gadaa of the Gabra and that of the Borana are reported in Schlee, “Meta-Ethnic.”

19. Bassi, “Returnees.”

20. Galaty, “The Land is Yours.”

21. Vannutelli and Citerni, L'Omo, 149.

22. Duuba Dima, recorded interview, August 9, 2005.

23. Vannutelli and Citerni, L'Omo, 136–9. The text is based on Bottego's hand notes. This information was probably gathered from the Somali translators, guides and guards accompanying the expedition.

24. Bizuneh, “Inter-Ethnic Relations,” 38–40.

25. Haberland, Galla, 338; Kassa, “Short History,” 39.

26. Bizuneh, “Inter-Ethnic Relations,” 44–6.

27. Sbacchi, Ethiopia under Mussolini, 161.

28. Bizuneh, “Inter-Ethnic Relations,” 49–74.

29. “Historical Evidences Against Somali Claims of Large Portions of Oromia with Particular Emphasis on Boorana Zone,” Appeal by Boorana Oromo Elders in Finfinnee, 2001.

30. Bizuneh, “Inter-Ethnic Relations,” 70–99.

31. Adugna, “Inter-Ethnic Relations,” 75–7.

32. Balabat were not customary leaders of Borana, but local elders appointed by the Ethiopian government.

33. Agrotec, “Southern Rangelands,” 75.

34. Lewis, “Pan Somalism”; Lewis, “WSLF.”

35. Adugna, “Inter-Ethnic Relations,” 79–91.

36. Kassa, “Return of Pastoralists,” 115–16.

37. Strictly speaking kebele is an urban division, but in current language the term includes the peasant associations, the lowest rural administrative division. In this paper I will use kebele with this broader meaning.

38. Bassi, Decisions in the Shade, 1–12; 145–66.

39. Bassi, “Returnees,” 34–42.

40. Kassa, “Return of Pastoralists,” 122.

41. Adugna, “Inter-Ethnic Relations”, 98–9, 104.

42. Adugna, “Inter-Ethnic Relations”, 99–104.

43. Bassi, “Returnees.”

44. Adugna, “Inter-Ethnic Relations,” 103–7, 124. Regarding these armed refugees, see also Farah, “Plight & Prospects,” 133–4; 138–9.

45. Clapham, “Controlling Space,” 29.

46. Bassi, “Returnees,”,42.

47. Vaughan and Tronvoll, Culture of Power, 134.

48. Lister, “Pastoralists Representation,” 24.

49. The OPDO is one of the regional parties federated to the EPRDF.

50. Borana Zone was thus subdivided into 12 administrative districts: Adoola, Oddo Shakkisoo, Uragaa, Booree, Hagaramaram, Galaana Abayaa, mainly inhabited by the Guji-Oromo, and Areero, Liiban, Dirree, Taltallee, Yaaballoo, Mooyyale, mainly inhabited by the Borana Oromo.

51. Adugna, “Inter-Ethnic Relations,” v, 111.

52. “Demarcation of boundaries of 11 woredas bordering the two regions,” letter by the Transitional Government of Ethiopia to Oromia Regional Administrative Council and Region Five Administrative Council, June 10, 1994.

53. Adugna, “Inter-Ethnic Relations,” 37–40, 113–14.

54. Adugna, “Inter-Ethnic Relations,” 37–40, 107–9.

55. Hagmann and Mulugeta, “Pastoral Conflicts,” 29.

56. Several researchers have independently collected lists of the Borana wells in Eel Goofa and Eel Laee, with information on ownership.

57. Oba, “Indigenous Range Management,” 62–3, 75–6; Tache, Pastoralism under Stress.

58. The Gumii Gaayoo (General Assembly of the Borana held every 8 years) of 1996 was attended by the President of Ethiopia, Nagaso Gidada and by the President of Oromia Region, Kumaa Dammaqsaa (Hukka, “37th Gumii Gaayo”; see Oba, “Indigenous Range Management,” 35, 63. The 2004 Gumii Gaayoo was attended by the President of Oromia Region, Juneydi Saddo.

59. FDRE, “House of the Federation.”

60. FDRE, “House of the Federation.”

61. Adugna, “Inter-Ethnic Relations,” 124–6.

62. Tronvoll and Aadland, Process of Democratisation, 42–4; Pausewang, Tronvoll and Aalen, Ethiopia since the Derg, 38.

63. HRW, “Suppressing Dissent.”

64. Pausewang, Tronvoll and Aalen, Ethiopia since the Derg, 239.

65. In the constituency under the administration of Region 5 it was held in August 2005 with an overwhelming victory of the SPDP.

66. IRIN, July 12 and 13, August 1, 2005.

67. IRIN, July 19, 2006.

68. IRIN, July 19, 2006.

69. Turton, Ethnic Federalism.

70. Clapham, “Controlling Space,” 25–30.

71. Petrovic, “Ethnic Cleansing,” 9, 11, 19.

72. Vaughan and Tronvoll, Culture of Power, 107–8.