Undercurrents to independence: plantation struggles in Kenya's Central Province 1959–60

Abstract

The avalanche of plantation strikes that took place during the early months of 1960 initiated the successive strike waves which plagued Kenya's decolonisation process. The lifting of the Emergency and the announcement of a transition period to African majority government in January 1960 was marked by a new confidence. After years of draconian discipline, estate workers embraced trade unionism and moved into their first organised struggles over wages and conditions. They were joined by unrestricted former Mau Mau detainees and the victims of land consolidation who entered the plantation work force. The arousal of high expectations fuelled the strikes that engulfed the plantation districts of Kenya's Central Province during the approach to independence. These events took place against a background of severe crisis within world coffee markets. Faced by this, European coffee growers attempted to compensate themselves by rationalising the plantation economy at the expense of their workers. This was met by fierce resistance from plantation labourers, which was only eventually tamed as union leaders struggled to arrest the movement and surrender organisational autonomy to the state.

Keywords:

• plantation
• coffee
• union
• state
• strike
• spontaneity
• bureaucracy

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank colleagues from the BA sponsored Commodities of Empire Project, an initiative of the OU Ferguson Centre for Asian and African Studies and the Wageningen University of Technology & Agrarian Development [NL]. This paper was presented at the project's 3rd annual international workshop ‘Local forms of production as resistance against global domination: anti-commodities’ on 17–19 June 2010 at The International Institute of Social History, Amsterdam. I would like to give special thanks to Ulbe Bosma of IISG for his in-depth analysis and appraisal of the paper.

Notes

1. The resources to further develop this and other work were made possible as a result of a Henry Chapman Fellowship at the Institute of Commonwealth Studies, University of London for which I am grateful. I would like to acknowledge the University of East London for releasing me to undertake a 3 month fieldwork in Kenya during 2004 to complete the research for this paper and other work.

2. Hyde, “Paying for the Emergency,” 81–103.

3. The Kenya coffee industry is based upon mainly highland grown arabica coffee. The arabica varieties grown are mild and command higher prices than other varieties. Some robusta coffee is grown in Nyanza Province but this forms a small part of the whole industry. In Kenya the berries are picked from June to December, according to region and season and the bulk of the crop is ready for market by November/December. The official crop year is from October 1 to September 30.

4. Hyde, “Plantation Struggles in Kenya.”

5. “those four-gallon paraffin tins that had become a universal water-vessel, measure and roofing material.” Huxley, The Flame Trees of Thika, 9; AMC 720: Verjee Report. According to this report, these tins were capable of carrying anything between 6000 to 18,000 cherries, depending on the size of the cherry. The average was about 8000 per debe or approximately 4,000,000 cherries per ton. The differences were accounted for by the weight and size of the cherry. Sometimes, with excess of rain, the cherry or the pulp was bigger or thicker. With less rain, the bean or kernel was smaller. Overall, there was rough average of 550 debes to the ton.

6. Hyde, “Plantation Struggles in Kenya.”

7. Hyde, “Plantation Struggles in Kenya.”. See Appendix 33: Anatomy of the Coffee Industry in Thika district giving details of ownership and acreages of estates, tribal and gender composition of the workforce as at 1st August 1960.

8. Singh, Kenya's Trade Unions. Following the Nairobi General Strike (1950), the labour movement was decimated by Operations “Jock Scott” (1952) and “Anvil” (1954) as thousands of members were arrested and detained, while others disappeared altogether. The Emergency brought on a vicious repression, which severely impacted on the Kikuyu workforce throughout Central Province and caused a great social dislocation. The close and intimate ties between urban Africans, the trade unions and Mau Mau, were placed under great stress and partially broken as many trade union members and officials were swept off into detention. Tens of thousands of Kikuyu workers were torn from the workplace to be “screened” and “rehabilitated”, a process that lasted throughout the Emergency. This lent a dysfunctional character to the labour market following the detention of the most skilled and stable sections of the work force. Ultimately, by the end of the Emergency the government was unable to prevent the previous Kikuyu dominance of the unions, that it had blamed for the “seditious” tendencies within the movement characteristic of the post war phase of union militancy up to 1950, from resurfacing. Whilst the Labour Department concentrated its energies on taming these workers for responsible unionism, in the run up to independence the structures of conciliation and arbitration were barely effective in containing the successive strike waves that engulfed the plantation districts of Central Province. See Hyde, “Plantation Struggles in Kenya,” appendices 1–36.

9. Hyde, “Plantation Struggles in Kenya.”

10. Kenya National Archives (KNA)/AMC 7/11, Coffee Planters’ Association: Enclosure 36.

11. “Greatest Challenge to Kenya Farmers – Trade Union Growth,” East African Standard, August 11, 1958.

12. Amsden, International Firms, 3–82; Clayton and Savage, Government and Labour, 290–462; Cooper, Decolonization, 323–60.

13. This post-war militant phase, where the trade unions, organised around the East African Trade Union Congress, were at the forefront of resistance to the colonial government, was brought to a definitive close by the Emergency. The realignment within the leadership that followed evidenced a shift from the militants who represented the upward sweep of the post war strike wave towards the moderates led by Tom Mboya, who reflected its downturn. In an attempt to survive a fierce repression the unions regrouped within the Kenya Federation of Registered Trade Unions (KFRTU) which worked closely with, and became dependent upon, the Labour Department. The KFRTU sought to limit the movement to everyday concerns and emphasised defence rather than defiance.

14. Furedi, Mau Mau War, 165.

15. Hyde, “Plantation Struggles in Kenya” gives full quantitative survey details of the tribal and gender composition of the workforce compiled from Labour Office returns of African workers employed on coffee estates in Thika district as at August 1, 1960. The release from detention and the lifting of all remaining restrictions on the employment of Kikuyu males facilitated the reinstatement of at least 10,000 of them into the plantation work force in Thika district alone.

16. Swynnerton, A Plan to Intensify the Development of African Agriculture.

17. KNA/VK/2/17/Labour and Trade Unions (General): O.J. Mason/Senior Labour Officer/Central Province to Labour. Officer/Thika, December 24, 1959 .

18. Jesse Gachago was the conduit of Labour Department unionism. He was mentored by Tom Mboya and, like the latter, had been a sanitary inspector with Nairobi City Council, attended the Jeanes School and, with Mboya's help, had become the Kenya Local Government Workers Union branch secretary in Nakuru and then the KFL's plantation organiser.

19. KNA/AF 1/1: Thika Labour Office Annual Report, 1959.

20. KNA/AF 1/1: Thika Labour Office Annual Report, 1959.

21. KNA/VK/2/24 CPWU 1959–61: Filenote by L.R. MacCullough, Senior Labour Officer/Central Province, October 27, 1959.

22. KNA/VK/2/24 CPWU 1959–61: J. Gachago to Executive Officer/Thika Urban District Council, November 2, 1959.

23. KNA/VK/2/24 CPWU 1959–61: J. Gachago to District Commissioner/ Thika, November 2, 1959.

24. KNA/VK/2/24 CPWU 1959–61: Report of the meeting by labour and wages inspectors, Thika district, November 23, 1959.

25. KNA/VK/2/24 CPWU 1959–61: Report of the meeting by labour and wages inspectors, Thika district, November 23, 1959.

26. CBK Kenya Coffee Monthly Bulletin, April 1960.

27. Public Records Office (PRO)/CO/544/98 Labour Department Annual Report (LDAR) 1960. Throughout Kenya, there were 232 officially reported strikes during the year, involving 72,545 workers and incurring a loss of nearly 758,000 man-days.

28. PRO/CO/822/2871 Labour Unrest in Kenya, 1960–2: Telegram from the Acting Governor of Kenya to the Secretary of State, May 16, 1960.

29. Hyde, “Plantation Struggles in Kenya,” gives full details of plantation and other disputes in Kenya throughout the period.

30. PRO/CO/544/98, LDAR 1960.

31. KNA/AF 1/9, Thika Labour Officer's Monthly Reports, April 1960. See also KNA/AF/1/9, Thika Labour Officer's Monthly Report, January 1960.

32. There was a widespread assumption that the estates of departing Europeans would be allotted to them free of charge.

33. PRO/CO/822/2871 Labour Unrest in Kenya, 1960–2: Telegram from the Acting Governor of Kenya to the Secretary of State, May 16, 1960.

34. PRO/CO/544/98, LDAR 1960.

35. Supervisors.

36. PRO/CO/822/2871, Labour Unrest in Kenya, 1960–2: Telegram from the Acting Governor of Kenya to the Secretary of State, May 16, 1960.

37. Anonymous interview, Kiambu Farmers Hotel, August 11, 2004, “Former detainees were the people who could most understand the meaning of trade unionism. They understood the need for unity, but not with men who had a former loyalist record. These Kikuyu had been their jailers and had occupied their land.”

38. PRO/CO/544/98, LDAR 1960.

39. KNA/VK/2/24, CPWU 1959–61: J.Watts, Filenote, January 19, 1960.

40. Table figures compiled from KNA/ABK/8/207, LD 98 Strike Reports, 1960.

41. KNA/VK/2/39, KFL 1959–63: Jesse Gachago to District Commissioner, January 4, 1960.

42. KNA/VK/2/24, CPWU 1959–61: Thika Labour Officer to Senior Labour Officer /Central Province, January 6, 1960.

43. KNA/AF/1/9, Thika Labour Officer's Monthly Report, January 1960.

44. KNA/VK/2/24, CPWU 1959–61: Thika Labour Officer to Senior Labour Officer /Central Province, January 6, 1960 .

45. KNA/VK/2/24, CPWU 1959–61: Thika Labour Officer to Jesse Gachago, January 8, 1960.

46. KNA/VK/2/24, CPWU 1959–61: Thika Labour Officer to Senior Labour Officer /Central Province, January 14, 1960.

47. KNA/VK/2/24, CPWU 1959–61: Thika Labour Officer to Senior Labour Officer /Central Province, January 14, 1960.

48. KNA/AF 1/9, Thika Labour Officer's Monthly Report, January 1960.

49. KNA/VK/2/24, CPWU 1959–61: Thika Labour Officer to Senior Labour Officer /Central Province, January 14, 1960.

50. KNA/VK/2/24, CPWU 1959–61: Thika Labour Officer to Senior Labour Officer /Central Province, 26 January 1960; According to the CBK Kenya Coffee Monthly Bulletin, April 1960.

51. KNA/VK/2/24, CPWU 1959–61: Thika Labour Officer to Senior Labour Officer/Central Province, January 16, 1960.

52. KNA/VK/2/24, CPWU 1959–61: CPWU General Secretary to the Manager of Shortlands Estate, January 15, 1960.

53. KNA/VK/2/24, CPWU 1959–61: Thika Labour Officer to Senior Labour Officer /Central Province, January 23, 1960.

54. KNA/AF/1/9, Labour Officer's Monthly Report, January 1960.

55. KNA/AF/1/9, Labour Officer's Monthly Report, February 1960.

56. KNA/ABK/8/205, Labour Deprtment 98 Strike Returns, 1960.

57. KNA/AF/1/9, Thika Labour Officer's Monthly Report, February 1960.

58. KNA/VK/2/24, CPWU1959–61: Joint Report Thika Labour and Wages Inspectors to the Labour Office, March 21, 1960.

59. KNA/AF/1/9, Thika Labour Officer's Monthly Reports, April 1960.

60. KNA/VK/1/50, Central Province Senior Labour Officer's Quarterly Report, April 1960.

61. KNA/AF/1/9, Thika Labour Officer's Monthly Report, May 1960.

62. KNA/AF/1/9, Thika Labour Officer's Monthly Reports, March 1960.

63. KNA/ABK/8/225, Strikes at Socfinaf Co., Ruera Estate and at G.Criticos & Co.Ltd, Kiaora estate, Ruiru: Letter from Thika Labour Officer to Senior Labour Officer/Central Province, 22 April 1960.

64. KNA/AF/1/9, Thika Labour Officer's Monthly Reports, April 1960.

65. KNA/AF/1/9, Thika Labour Officer's Monthly Reports, April 1960.

66. KNA/ABK/8/222, Strike at Sisal Ltd, Makuyu 1960: Letter fromThika Labour Officer to Senior Labour Officer/Central Province, March 8, 1960.

67. Interviews carried out in Makuyu during July–August, 2004.

68. KNA/ABK/8/222, Strike at Sisal Ltd, Makuyu 1960: Letter from Thika Labour Officer to Senior Labour Officer/Central Province, Nyeri, March 29, 1960.

69. KNA/ABK/8/222, Strike at Sisal Ltd, Makuyu 1960: Letter from Thika Labour Officer to Senior Labour Officer/Central Province, April 8, 1960.

70. KNA/ABK/8/222, Strike at Sisal Ltd, Makuyu 1960: Letter from Thika Labour Officer to Senior Labour Officer/Central Province, April 8, 1960.

71. KNA/ABK/8/222, Strike at Sisal Ltd, Makuyu 1960: Filenote by the Senior Labour Officer/Central Province, April 21, 1960.

72. KNA/ABK/8/222, Strike at Sisal Ltd, Makuyu 1960: Letter from Thika Labour Officer to Senior Labour Officer/Central Province, April 26, 1960.

73. KNA/ABK/8/222, Strike at Sisal Ltd, Makuyu 1960: Letter from Thika Labour Officer to Senior Labour Officer/Central Province, May 4, 1960.

74. KNA/ABK/8/228, Glenlee Estate, Ruiru Strikes: Letter from Labour Officer/Thika to M.E. de La Hayes, October 12, 1960.

75. KNA/ABK/8/228, Glenlee Estate, Ruiru Strikes: Letter from Labour Officer/Thika to the Labour Commissioner, April 16, 1960.

76. KNA/ABK/8/228, Glenlee Estate, Ruiru Strikes: Letter from Labour Officer/Thika to M.E. de La Hayes, October 12, 1960.

77. KNA/ABK/8/205, LD 98 Reports, 1960.

78. KNA/ABK/8/228, Glenlee Estate, Ruiru Strikes: Transcript of Meeting between Hayes and Wachira related in a letter from Labour Officer (Thika) to Senior Labour Officer/Central Province, April 21, 1960.

79. KNA/ABK/8/228, Glenlee Estate, Ruiru Strikes: Conversation between Mr G.Wild, Manager of Glenlee Estate Ltd, and Godwin Wachira, April 14, 1960.

80. KNA/ABK/8/228, Glenlee Estate, Ruiru Strikes: Letter from Thika Labour Officer to Senior Labour Officer/Central Province, April 21, 1960.

81. KNA/ABK/8/228, Glenlee Estate, Ruiru Strikes: Letter from the CPWU to the Labour Commissioner, June 22, 1960.

82. KNA/ABK/8/228, Glenlee Estate, Ruiru Strikes: Letter from Thika Labour Officer to Senior Labour Officer/ Central Province, April 26, 1960.

83. Resident labourers had cultivation rights on the estates where they worked consisting of small plots close to their labour lines.

84. KNA/ABK/8/228, Glenlee Estate, Ruiru Strikes: Letter from the CPWU to the Labour Commissioner, June 22, 1960.

85. KNA/VK/2/24, CPWU 1959–61: Wachira to the Labour Commissioner, June 22, 1960.

86. KNA/VK/2/24, CPWU 1959–61: Letter from Godwin Wachira to the Executive Officer, KCGA, June 9, 1960.

87. KNA/VK/2/24, CPWU 1959 – 61: Letter from R.A.J. Damerell, Labour Commissioner to the General Secretary, CPWU, July 1, 1960.

88. “Growers and Ministers Discuss Strike Wave,” East African Standard, April 5, 1960.

89. Hyde, “The East African Railway Strike 1959”.

90. KNA/AF/1/9, Thika Labour Officer's Monthly Report, May 1960.

91. PRO/CO/822/2871, Labour Unrest in Kenya, 1960–2: Telegram from the Acting Governor of Kenya to the Secretary of State, May 16, 1960.

92. PRO/CO/822/2871, Labour Unrest in Kenya, 1960–2: Telegram from the Acting Governor of Kenya to the Secretary of State, May 16, 1960.

93. PRO/CO/822/2871, Labour Unrest in Kenya, 1960–2: Telegram from the Acting Governor of Kenya to the Secretary of State, May 16, 1960.

94. PRO/CO/544/98, LDAR 1960. Conditions of service, usually pay or rations, were prominent amongst the demands raised by workers in 23 cases, whilst demands for the dismissal of a supervisor, “usually a long service headman with loyal emergency record” came to the fore in at least half the plantation strikes that occurred. The struggle to reinstate dismissed activists triggered at least 6 disputes and was a contributory cause in others; Central Province's Senior Labour Officer, O.J. Mason observed, that where strikers demands were made discernible, they frequently followed a set pattern.

95. By the end of 1960, throughout Kenyan industry as a whole, there were 104 negotiating bodies covering 187,000 workers.

96. CBK Kenya Coffee Monthly Bulletin, April 1960.

97. KNA/VK/1/50, Senior Labour Officer's Monthly Report /Central Province, March 1960.

98. KNA/VK/1/50, Senior Labour Officer's Monthly Report /Central Province, March 1960.

99. KNA/VK/1/50, Senior Labour Officer's Monthly Report /Central Province, March 1960.

100. KNA/AF/1/9, Thika Labour Officer's Monthly Report, January 1960.

101. KNA/AF/1/9, Thika Labour Officer's Monthly Report, May 1960.

102. KNA/VK/1/50, Senior Labour Officer's Monthly Report /Central Province, March 1960.

103. PRO/CO/544/98, LDAR 1960.

104. One informant, who must remain anonymous, testifies to a prevalent assumption amongst workers that union officials were being paid off to commandeer them back to work. Interview conducted at Kiambu Farmers Hotel, August 11, 2004.

105. Hyde, “Plantation Struggles in Kenya.”

106. KNA/AF/1/9, Thika Labour Officer's Monthly Report, May 1960.

107. KNA/VK/1/50, Central Province Senior Labour Officer's Monthly Report, February 1960.

108. PRO/CO/822/2871, Labour Unrest in Kenya, 1960–2: Telegram from the Acting Governor of Kenya to the Secretary of State, May 3, 1960.

109. PRO/CO/822/2871, Labour Unrest in Kenya, 1960–2: Reuters News Agency Report, May 11, 1960.

110. KNA/VK/1/50, Central Province Senior Labour Officer's Monthly Report, April 1960.

111. Estate meetings involving workers.

112. KNA/AF 1/5, Thika Labour Inspector's Monthly Reports, April 1960.

113. Furedi, Mau Mau War, p. 140.

114. PRO/CO/544/98, LDAR, 1960.

115. Hyde, “Paying for the Emergency.”

116. CBK Kenya Coffee Monthly Bulletin, April 1960.

117. “Politics and Organisation to Blame: Causes of Wildcat Strikes Explained,” East African Standard, May 7, 1960.

118. Hyde, “Plantation Struggles in Kenya.”

119. Stichter, “Imperialism” 157–78; Kagwanja, “Kwame Nkrumah's Theory,” 13–23; Arrighi, “International Corporations”; Saul, “The ‘Labour Aristocracy’ Case Reconsidered.” There was a case of mistaken identity in this literature involving the labour aristocracy and the trade union bureaucracy. Whilst the skilled proletariat and union functionaries both occupied a more privileged position within the working class, the latter embraced the politics of class collaboration in their practice of administering workers struggles. Though a coincidence of interest between the two was sometimes apparent, during 1959–64 they more often confronted each other as opposites. So that while the labour bureaucracy drew closer to the state, the more privileged sections of workers such as railmen, teachers and civil servants, hitherto the most conservative and quietist, moved into confrontation with their state employer. The conflation of the upper layers of the working class with the bureaucratic stratum in the trade unions has lent credence to the incorrect assumption that the factionalism and corruption amongst the latter, often motivated by the scent of individual gain and prospective privilege, were an essential reflection of real or supposed tribal divisions within the African working class which was allegedly contending for patrons.