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Abstract
This article uses the resource scarcity-violence model of Homer-Dixon (1999) to analyse the drivers of conflicts between ethnic groups that shared the pre-colonial ethnic frontiers of trans-Jubaland–Wajir and competed over water sources during the colonial period in the Northern Frontier District (NFD) of Kenya from 1903 to 1939. The article shows that pre-colonial ethnic conflicts were not induced by resource scarcity. Rather, extended periods of peace punctuated by conflicts were associated more with social and political relations. By contrast, the colonial period, with far more restrictive resource access to wells and the grazing lands, resulted in structural changes in resource scarcity. Colonial resource governance was incapable of stopping the pressures from migrants threatening resident populations. Residents were finally displaced and former alliances broken up. The competition resulted in violent conflicts due to structural changes that altered rights to resources.
Acknowledgements
The archivists of the Kenya National Archives in Nairobi are thanked for their assistance. The archival research was funded by the Norwegian Research Council through NORKLIMA Project No. 193754. The author thanks Godana Adhi Doyo and three anonymous referees for providing valuable comments.
Notes
1. Salehyan, “From Climate Change to Conflict?”
2. Roba and Witsenburg, Surviving Pastoral Decline.
3. Roba and Witsenburg, Surviving Pastoral Decline
4. Bogale and Korf, “To Share or Not to Share?,” 762.
5. My definition of resource borders is similar to that of Barth, Ethnic Groups and Boundaries.
6. Lewis, A Modern History of the Somali.
7. Lewis, A Pastoral Democracy. It was mostly the Somali clan families who used this system, since among the southern Oromo who have no culture of internal conflicts, bloodstock is rarely demanded. In the case of homicides, which are also rare, the law was either to condemn the guilty one to death, or to settle the matter through peaceful negotiation.
8. Lewis, A Pastoral Democracy, 14.
9. Referring to the pre-colonial and colonial prairie grasslands of the northwestern plains, Binnema, Common and Contested Ground, shows how different groups of indigenous Indians negotiated and contested resource borders.
10. In this paper, I adopt the approach used in Azarya, Nomads and the State in Africa, 42.
11. Homer-Dixon, Environment, Scarcity, and Violence.
12. Markakis, Resource Conflict, 5.
13. Ellis, Transforming Conflict, 40–1.
14. Ellis, Transforming Conflict, 23.
15. Fukui and Markakis, “Introduction,” 3.
16. Nnoli, Ethnic Conflicts in Africa.
17. According to Fukui and Markakis, the state “is both the arena and a major contestant” in conflict, see Fukui and Markakis, “Introduction,” 8.
18. See Bar, “The State, Elites and Ethnic Conflict,” 242 and Nalbandov, Foreign Interventions, 1.
19. Ellis, Transforming Conflict, 27.
20. Markakis, “Ethnic Conflict and the State,” 218.
21. Gelfand, “Ethnic Relations and Social Research,” 13.
22. In earlier literature, the Oromo were known by the pejorative name “Galla” used by the Amhara and later by the Europeans. The people call themselves Oromo, which implies “free”, being one of the largest cultural and linguistic groups in the Horn of Africa. In Ethiopia, the Oromo are found in several parts of the country, presently referred to as the Oromia State in Ethiopia. In the borderlands of Ethiopia and Kenya, the dominant Oromo group is the Borana. They share the grazing lands with the Gabbra, another Oromo clan, whose economy is dominated by camel management, while that of Borana is dominated by cattle. See Jaenen, “The Galla or Oromo of East Africa.”
23. The archival sources used in the present article are from the Kenya National Archives (KNA) in Nairobi. Archival files were recorded under the Provincial Commissioner Northern Frontier (PC/NFD) of Kenya or under District Administrations such as Moyale (MLE) or Mandera (MDA). Other sources are from the Colonial Secretariat Nairobi, His Majesty's (HM) Minister based in Addis Abba, and HM British Consul Mega for the southern borderlands. Ethiopian sources are limited and are mostly found in the British intelligence reports. I have taken great care to cross-reference the different sources and used the British reports on Ethiopia cautiously where there was evidence of racial bias or glaringly inaccurate reporting. The Kenya Archives are excellently illustrated with real case examples and dates of contentious issues are cross-referenced. The archives also differentiate eyewitness and authoritative reporting from “rumours”. Sources are indicated as rumours were not used in the analyses. For the most part, reports on inter-ethnic groups were based on reported facts, and for this reason they are factually accurate. In order to put the study of inter-ethnic conflicts and their drivers into perspective, I relied on and used historical texts extensively, which were interpreted and analysed.
24. Ravenstein, “Somal and Galla Land,” 267. Ravenstein's 1884 publication was based on the 1865 field notes of Rev. Thomas Wakefield.
25. Ravenstein, “Somal and Galla Land,”, 270. The descriptions of this earlier map remain vague.
26. The earlier relations and shifting identities have been described by Schlee, Identities on the Move.
27. Baxter, “Immediate Problems,” 240. The Ajuran and the Garre were neighbours of the Borana for several centuries, both adopting some of the Borana customs and speaking the Oromo dialect of the Borana. Whereas the Garre shared resource borders, the Ajuran were fully integrated into the systems of resource use through an alliance. See also Oba, “Shifting Identities along Resource Borders.”
28. The time of the Ajuran admission into Borana was probably after the collapse of the Ajuran sultanate, sometime in the eighteenth century. See Cassanelli, The Shaping of Somali Society, 115.
29. Spencer, “Age Systems and Modes.” The political and social roles of gada have been comprehensively described by Legesse, Gada, and Legesse, Oromo Democracy.
30. Ravenstein, “Somal and Galla Land,” 267.
31. Cassanelli, The Shaping of the Somali Society.
32. KNA/ PC/NFD4/6/1, Jubaland.
33. Wilding, “The history of pastoralists”, 30.
34. Fekadu, “Inter-ethnic Relation between the Oromo and Somali,” 62.
35. Interview with Borbor Bulle in 1997, Yaabalo, Ethiopia.
36. Tiki and Oba, “Ciinna – The Borana Oromo Narration.” The causes of disease were the Great Rinderpest pandemic of the 1890s that struck cattle, and smallpox and subsequent famine that induced human population collapse.
37. KNA/ PC/NFD/4/1/2, Major Miles HM Consul Mega, Notes on the Province of Borana, southern Abyssinia; Turton, “The Pastoral Tribes of Northern Kenya,” 50.
38. Turton, “The Pastoral Tribes of Northern Kenya,” 279.
39. KNA/ PC/NFD4/6/1, Jubaland.
40. Turton, “The Pastoral Tribes of Northern Kenya.”
41. Interview with Oba Sarite Kura, 103 years, Sololo, Kenya, 1994.
42. Interview with Roba Buhkura, 98 years, conducted by Abdullahi Shongollo in Moyale, Kenya, 1993.
43. Interview with Halakhe Hukana Chaari, 101 years, Moyale, Kenya, 1994. The Borana memory of the event is narrated in the war song [geerarsa] in praise of the two war leaders, Dambi Kulula Fayo and Tuye Galgallo. In joking jibes between the Saabo and the Gonna represented by the two leaders respectively, the composition states: “Kululi Jirmani d'aane [kulula beat them with clubs], Tuye bisaani d'aane [Tuye beat them with water, literal meaning that he first used brutal methods of killing and the later used softer methods of killing], Tolaani d'iira baliyo waalin d'aane [the gentle of men – referring to the foot soldiers slaying the enemy, while in a rush to take trophies entangled their large spears – in fury of attacks].”
44. Turton, “The Pastoral Tribes of Northern Kenya,” 278.
45. Donaldson Smith, Through Unknown African Countries, 178.
46. Donaldson Smith, Through Unknown African Countries
47. Aylmer, “The Country between the Juba River,” 295.
48. Maud, “Exploration in the Southern Borderland.”
49. Aylmer, “The Country between the Juba River,” 296.
50. Turton, “The Pastoral Tribes of Northern Kenya.”
51. KNA/DC/MDA/1/1, Gurreh District Annual Report for 1926, 5.
52. Turton, “The Pastoral Tribes of Northern Kenya,” 253.
53. KNA/DC/ MDA/4/2, Comprising mostly Rer Afgab and Rer Wafti, 10.
54. KNA/DC/MDA/4/2, The Marehan were reported to have come from the country of Ogaden and settled west of the Ganale River. They were part of the followers of the Mad Mullah and had obtained rifles and arrived across the Western part of the Ganale where they were referred to as Rer Isak-Galti which means the new Marehan. This militant group was responsible for disturbing pre-colonial resource borders between Somali groups and the Borana alliance to the west. When they ran away from the Mullah's followers the group had no stock, and their aggressive attacks on others was therefore designed to build up their own herds using looted stock.
55. Maud, “Exploration in the Southern Borderland,” 552–79.
56. Baxter, “The ‘New’ East African Pastoralist,” 154.
57. Kirk-Green, The Principles of Native Administration, 43–4.
58. Baxter, “Social organisation of the Galla,” 32.
59. Turnbull, “The Wardeh,” 268–9. In the 1880s the Darood committed acts of genocide against the Wardeh Oromo, who for centuries were resident in the Trans-Jubaland, and enslaved the remnants of the population.
60. Trench, “Why a Greek?,” 48.
61. Trench, Men Who Ruled Kenya.
62. KNA/PC/NFD4/1/4, 2, Provincial Commissioner's Office, Kismayu, October 24, 1918, Notes on administration of Jubaland and Northern Frontier District.
63. Trench, The Desert's Dusty Face, 57.
64. KNA/PC/NFD/4/2, Political record book, Wajir District Northern Frontier Province.
65. KNA/PCNFD4/1/4, 4. File # 9.579/9/18, H.B. Kittermaster 1918. Reorganization of Jubaland and the Northern Frontier, to Chief Secretary, Nairobi, November 1, 1918.
66. KNA/PCNFD4/1/4, 4. File # 9.579/9/18
67. KNA/PCNFD4/1/4, 4. File # 9.579/9/18
68. KNA/PCNFD4/1/4, 4. File # 9.579/9/18
69. Beachey, The Warrior Mullah. The British fought Mohamed Abdille Hassan (Mad Mullah) and his supporters from 1892 to 1920.
70. KNA/PC/NFD4/1/4 ref. P. 350 /19/17, District Commissioner's Office, Moyale, January 4, 1918.
71. KNA/PC/NFD4/3/1, Moyale, NFD 1915. Handing over Report by V. Glenday.
72. KNA/PC/NFD4/1/, No. 9-511/19/184, Provincial Commissioner's Office, Lamu, November 26, 1918.
73. KNA/PC/NFD4/1/, No. 9-511/19/184, Provincial Commissioner's Office
74. KNA/PC/NFD4/1/, No. 9-511/19/184, Provincial Commissioner's Office
75. KNA/PC/NFD4/1/, No. 9-511/19/184, Provincial Commissioner's Office
76. King, “The Work of the Jubaland Boundary Commission,” 425. The region of Jubaland was transferred to Italy in 1925 and a new frontier marked between Urto Juba and the Northern Frontier Districts of Kenya. With these changes, the Ogaden Somalis resident in the former Jubaland and the NFD were separated by the frontiers between two sovereign states.
77. KNA/PC/NFD4/1/4, 2, Provincial Commissioner's Office, October 24, 1918. Notes on administration of Jubaland and the Northern Frontier District.
78. KNA/PC/NFD4/1/4, 2, H.B. Kittermaster 1918.
79. KNA/PC/NFD4/1/4, 2, H.B. Kittermaster 1918.
80. KNA/PC/NFD/4/1/2. Political Record Book, Wajir District, Northern Frontier Province. See also Watson, “Wells, Cairns, and Rainpools,” 50–3.
81. Motor transport had not been introduced in the NFD at this time.
82. Lieutenant Colonel Murchhead 1921. Provincial Annual Report Northern Frontier District (Military Administration).
83. KNA/PC/NFD/4/1/2, 16. Political Record Book, Wajir District, Northern Frontier Province. See also Trench, Men Who Ruled Kenya.
84. KNA/PC/NFD/4/1/2. Political Record Book, Wajir District, Northern Frontier District, 1922.
85. KNA/PC/NFD/4/1/2, 28, Political Record Book, Wajir District, Northern Frontier Province, 1922.
86. This period was when the military administration took over the running of the NFD.
87. The boundary of the grazing area was fixed on the Habaswein–Wajir–Dubasso–Butulo road.
88. KNA/PC/NFD4/1/4. Lt. Colonel Llewellyn, fifth Kings African Rifles (KAR), Officer-in-Charge Moyale district, 26 June 1922.
89. KNA/PC/NFD4/1/4. Lt. Colonel Llewellyn, fifth Kings African Rifles (KAR), Officer-in-Charge Moyale district, 28.
90. Trench, Men Who Ruled Kenya, 60.
91. KNA/PC/NFD4/1/4, Fifth Kings African Rifles, Wajir July 23, 1922. Proceeding of baraza held between the Boran and Adjuran Chiefs and the Degodia chiefs before the Officer-in-Charge.
92. KNA/PC/NFD4/1/4, Fifth Kings African Rifles, Wajir July 23
93. The Borana wells are usually named after the ancestral konfi, the person who initiated the digging. In cases of conflicts over property rights of wells, the genealogy of the claimants must be reconstructed without any break to the original ancestor whose name the well bears. The Degodia appeared to have wanted to use this, but in this particular case it is unknown if the claimant would have been Nur Abukir presented at the meeting. The Degodia chief probably judged wisely, for such claims would have not withstood scrutiny. The Degodia as recent comers would have had no chance of making any legal claims against the Borana.
94. In this particular case Gaal Mahad the chief of the Fai Degodia brought along the man by the name Nur Abukir who probably rehabilitated the well, wanting to present such a claim, but other factors might have restrained him from doing so, then. However, after the Borana were displaced from the Wajir wells, Nur Abukir probably became the real owner against other possible contestants. See KNA/PC/NFD4/1/, No. 9-511/19/184, Provincial Commissioner's Office, Lamu, November 26, 1918.
95. In this particular case Gaal Mahad the chief of the Fai Degodia brought along the man by the name Nur Abukir who probably rehabilitated the well, wanting to present such a claim, but other factors might have restrained him from doing so, then. However, after the Borana were displaced from the Wajir wells, Nur Abukir probably became the real owner against other possible contestants. See KNA/PC/NFD4/1/, No. 9-511/19/184, Provincial Commissioner's Office, Lamu, November, 28.
96. Helland, “Social Organization and Water Control,” 250.
97. KNA/PC/NFD4/1/4, Llewellyn.
98. KNA/PC/NFD4/1/4, Proceedings of a baraza held between the Boran and Ajuran Chiefs and the Degodia Chiefs before the Officer-in-Charge NFD, Wajir, July 23, 1922.
99. Oba Sarite Kura, 101 years old, interviewed in Sololo, 1992.
100. Oba Sarite Kura, 101 years old, interviewed in Sololo
101. Oba Sarite Kura, 101 years old, interviewed in Sololo
102. Oba Sarite Kura, 101 years old, interviewed in Sololo
103. Oba Sarite Kura, 101 years old, interviewed in Sololo
104. The Degodia crossed the eastern frontier into the British territory for the first time in 1909.
105. KNA/PC/NFD4/1/4, District Officer Moyale, 18.
106. KNA/NFD5/1/1, 14, Kenya Colony Intelligence Report for the month, March 31, 1924.
107. KNA/PC/NFD3/1/1, Kenya Colony Intelligence Report for the July 31, 1924.
108. KNA/PC/NFD3/1/1, Kenya Colony Intelligence Report for the July 31, 1924.
109. KNA/PC/NFD/4/1/2, Political Record Book Wajir District Northern Frontier Province.
110. NA/DC/MDA/4/3, 18, Gurreh Records 1902 to 1912: Southern Frontier Agreement (inclosure No. 23).
111. KNA/PC/NFD1/5/1, 4, Wajir District, Northern Frontier Province, Annual Report; KNA/DC/MLE/3/3; Provincial Intelligence Report for August 1930, Northern Frontier Province.
112. KNA/PC/NFD1/5/1, 3, Wajir District Annual Report.
113. KNA/DC/MDA/4/3, 18, Gurreh Records; KNA/PC/NFD1/5/1, 3, Wajir District Annual Report.
114. The interviews were conducted with Oba Sarite Kura (103 years) and Halakhe Guyo Hukana Chaari (101 years) in 1992 and 1994, respectively.
115. Interview with Oba Sarite Kura, 103 years, conducted by the author in March 1992.
116. Thompson, “The Phenomenon of Shifting Frontiers,” 21.
117. Trench, Men Who Ruled Kenya, 138.
118. His father, Dido Doyo, was the first colonial chief of the Borana in Wajir.
119. Trench, Men Who Ruled Kenya, 138.
120. Trench, Men Who Ruled Kenya, 139.
121. Schlee, “Brothers of the Boran Once Again.”
122. KNA/PC/NFD4/3/1, Captain W.C. Fowler 1924. Annual Report Moyale District 1924.
123. KNA/PC/NFD4/3/1, Captain W.C. Fowler 1924.
124. The term Jille Qullulu refers to Gonna of Jillitu clan. The hallmark that separated the Borana from the Somalis in those days was “a hair tuft on the head” [guutu] of men as an identity marker of being Borana. The Ajuran had shared all other cultural items except the guutu.
125. The story is told that when the Arsi attacked the Boran in Dirre, during the conflict referred to as gaaf sooma guuraati (the time of black spear shafts), when Iddi Bille and Tapaatu Badha of the Arsi, joint cavalry massacred the Borana in Dirre, a man from the clan of Hawatu Jarso Wadha sacrificed himself by tackling the enemy on his own (this was done as part of a ritual, for as soon as his blood was spilled, according to a Borana prophet, the enemy was to be counter attacked and wiped out). But before he did so, he requested the gada to do him a favour that for the coming generation his clan would not be kept waiting at their wells by others. This was granted, and ever since the eighteenth century that rule had been applied. Interview with Godana Ajaa by Gufu Oba in 1978.
126. KNA/PC/NFD/4/1/2. Political Record Book, Wajir District, Northern Frontier Province, 1922.
127. KNA/PC/NFD3/1/1, 64, Kenya Intelligence reports for 1925, to Consul Southern Abyssinia. The shooting occurred in a hut crowded with elders having a coffee ceremony. On the request of Jattani Kuni that the man should not be harmed because it was an accident, he was released. Interview with Oba Sarite Kura by the author in Sololo, 1992.
128. The Borana sources reported that Jattani Kuni had predicted that the Borana would lose the land after his death, when the young Jaldesa, inclined towards the Somalis, would become their leader. Jaldessa Jarso was said to be the first Borana chief to become Muslim. Interview with Oba Sarite Kura by the author in Sololo, 1992.
129. KNA/DC/MLE/2/2, Moyale District Political Records, 1902–1929.
130. Thompson, “The Phenomenon of Shifting Frontiers,” 22.
131. Interview with Oba Sarite Kura, 102 years, interviewed by Gufu Oba in Sololo, 1993.