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Abstract
Uganda's army, the Uganda People's Defence Force (UPDF), has been operating on Sudanese territory since the late 1990s. From 2002 to 2006, a bilateral agreement between the governments in Khartoum and Kampala gave the Ugandan soldiers permission to conduct military operations in Southern Sudan to eliminate the Ugandan rebel Lord's Resistance Army (LRA). Instead of conducting a successful operation against Uganda's most persistent rebels – who had withdrawn into Sudanese territory and acted as a proxy force in Sudan's civil war – the UPDF conducted a campaign of abuse against Sudanese civilians. Drawing on extensive fieldwork conducted over several years, this article documents local experiences of a foreign army's involvement in the brutal Sudanese civil war. It outlines why continued operations of the UPDF outside their borders recreate the same problem they purport to be fighting: abuses of civilians. Since 2008, US military support for the UPDF mission against the LRA has called into question the viability of continued militarisation through an army that has committed widely documented human rights abuses. The foreign military has not brought peace to the region. Instead, it has made a peaceful environment less likely for residents of South Sudan.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank those who gave their time and insights, for the assistance received from numerous research assistants, translators and other helpers. Conciliation Resources, The Small Arms Survey and the Central Research Fund of the University of London have at various points supported my fieldwork. Thanks to two kind and constructive anonymous reviewers of this article.
Notes
1. The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, “Letter from the President to the Speaker of the House of Representatives and the President Pro Tempore of the Senate regarding the Lord's Resistance Army,” Washington, DC, October 14, 2011.
2. Invisible Children, “Kony2012”, videocampaign, released March 5, 2012.
3. Butagira, “Seven Questions.”
4. Findings have been published in Schomerus, Perilous Border, Schomerus, The Lord's Resistance Army in Sudan and Schomerus, Violent Legacies, as well as Schomerus and Tumutegyereize, After Operation Lightning Thunder.
5. Author interview with storekeeper, Owiny-Kibul, November 23, 2006.
6. For a more detailed history of the LRA in Sudan and connections to other armed groups, see Schomerus, The Lord's Resistance Army in Sudan and Schomerus, Violent Legacies. Johnson describes how first contacts between the LRA, William Nyuon Bany and the EDF, created the LRA–Khartoum collaboration. Johnson, The Root Causes, 100, 113.
7. Assistant interview with male resident, Palotaka, June 16, 2008.
8. Allen, “Full Circle?”
9. Personal email from Charles Kisanga, EDF Secretary General until 2005, February 14, 2008.
10. See Prunier, “Rebel Movements and Proxy Warfare.”
11. Author (with translator) interview with former SAF soldier, Port Sudan, January 19, 2011.
12. Residents of Owiny-Kibul recalled that LRA killed four people in the area in 1994, after having been in the area peacefully for a few years. At the time the killing came as a surprise.
13. Author interview with international security adviser, Juba, November 7, 2006.
14. Author notes at community meetings, Pajok, Owiny-Kibul, December 7, 2006.
15. Author interview with international security expert, Juba, February 1, 2008.
16. Author interview with resident, Owiny-Kibul, November 23, 2006.
17. Author interview with resident, Owiny-Kibul, November 23, 2006
18. Author interview with Chairman of Acholi Community, Juba, November 8, 2006.
19. Author (with translator) interview with former SAF soldier, Port Sudan, January 19, 2011.
20. The team sought places that had suffered LRA attacks, so the high number of attacks is predetermined. Often residents have conflicting memories about attacks on their villages; after decades of war it is impossible to trace exactly which armed group did what. The data is thus best viewed as an indication of the scale of the war experience.
21. Three Sudanese researchers and myself conducted the interviews. Some interviewees took the word “family” to mean their nuclear family; others also referred to uncles or cousins. While the number of Sudanese abducted by the LRA is unknown, these figures are not a reliable indication that LRA abduction of Sudanese in Sudan was more widespread than assumed. Many of the respondents mixed up abductions that had happened in Uganda and Sudan.
22. On July 14, 1996, the LRA killed 106 Sudanese refugees in Uganda's Achol-Pii camp. The attack exposed a fundamental failure to protect refugees. Bagenda and Hovil, “Sudanese Refugees in Northern Uganda.”
23. Governments of Sudan and Uganda, “Nairobi Agreement.”
24. Hasunira and Solomon, “The new Museveni–Bashir Pact?”
25. Author notes of conversations with LRA members, Juba, December 2006.
26. Author (with translator) interview with former SAF soldier Port Sudan, January 19, 2011.
27. Author interview with SPLA officer, Owiny-Kibul, November 23, 2006.
28. Author interview with former SPLA soldier, Bentiu, January 22, 2011; “Major SPLA Offensive in Southern Sudan,” Sudan News & Views, no. 25, March 1997.
29. Rodriguez, “The Northern Uganda War,” p. 81.
30. Lomo, “The International Criminal Court Investigations”; Refugee Law Project, “What About Us? The exclusion of urban IDPs from Uganda's IDP related policies and interventions.” Briefing paper, December 2007.
31. Author interview with boma administrator and health worker, Palotaka, November 26, 2006.
32. Author interview with Dr Julia Dvany, Undersecretary Parliamentary Affairs, Government of Southern Sudan, Juba, October 15, 2006.
33. Discussion youth group, Nimule, December 11, 2006.
34. Marks, Border in Name Only.
35. Marks, Border in Name Only.
36. Author interview with Riek Machar, Vice-President of the Government of Southern Sudan, Maridi, June 13, 2006.
37. On the Juba Talks, see Drew, Initiatives.
38. Government of the Republic of Uganda and Lord's Resistance Army/Movement, “Cessation of Hostilities.”
39. Author interview with Vincent Otti, Second-in-Command of the LRA, Ri-Kwangba, September 22, 2006.
40. Author interview with UN security, Juba, December 15, 2006.
41. Author notes on Joseph Kony's speech to UN staff, mediation team and Acholi legal advisors, Ri-Kwangba, December 12, 2006.
42. Author interview with local journalist, Juba, January 31, 2008.
43. Author interview with Lt.Col. Matthias Dot Maluk, SPLA Base Commander, Magwi, February 7, 2008.
44. A comprehensive assessment of OLT and the impact on civilians is in Atkinson, From Uganda to the Congo and beyond and Schomerus and Tumutegyereize, After Operation Lightning Thunder.
45. Espeland and Petersen, “The Ugandan Army and its War in the North.”
46. The UPDF's conduct in Uganda and DRC is widely documented by researchers and human rights agencies. See for example Dolan, Social Torture; Finnstroem, Living with bad surroundings; amnesty international, Uganda: The Failure to Safeguard Human Rights, Galletti and Rone, “North Crisis Worsened by UPDF”; Mawson, Breaking the Circle, Human Rights Watch, Army and Rebels Commit Atrocities in the North and Uprooted and Forgotten. A telling case about the murky security and justice environment in which the UPDF moves is what the Ugandan High Court called a “blatant case of extrajudicial killing” involving a senior UPDF commander. See the cable from the US Embassy in Kampala “Embassy Cable: Subject: Uganda: Additional information on 2002 Gulu prison incident/ Confidential Kampala 001399,” Kampala, December 17, 2009. PGOV SIPDIS; EO 12958 DECL: 2019/12/17; TAGS PHUM, UG; REF: STATE 112641; CLASSIFIED BY: Aaron Sampson, Pol/Econ Chief, State, Pol/Econ; REASON: 1.4(B), (D).
47. Author interview with chairman of the Acholi community, Juba, November 8, 2006. At the time of the accusation, Awet Akot was based with the SPLA in Torit as one of the SPLA's high commanders, and had been promoted to General when the SPLA introduced formal ranks.
48. Vuni, “Sudan's Greater Equatoria Conference.”
49. Author interview with man in market, Obbo, October 3, 2006.
50. Author interview with UN security, Juba, September 8, 2006.
51. Matsiko et al., “Kony Orders Rebels.”
52. Author notes of first trip of the CHMT, Owiny-Kibul, October 2, 2006.
53. Author interview with leader of women's collective, Juba, June 28, 2006.
54. Author interview with international security adviser, Juba, November 7, 2006.
55. Author interview with parish priest of Palotaka and Acholi corridors, Juba, November 7, 2006.
56. See for example Mwenda, “Uganda's Politics of Foreign Aid and Violent Conflict.”
57. Discussion with agricultural workers, Ikotos, June 16, 2008.
58. Discussion with leaders from Eastern and Central Equatoria attending a workshop at Totto Chan, Juba, March 3, 2009.
59. Author interview with parish priest of Palotaka and Acholi corridors, Juba, November 7, 2006.
60. Discussion with youth group, Owiny-Kibul, December 10, 2006.
61. Author interview with Dr Julia Dvany, Undersecretary Parliamentary Affairs, Government of Southern Sudan, Juba, October 15, 2006.
62. Author interview with Sudanese journalist, Juba, January 31, 2008.
63. Author interview with female government worker, Magwi, June 13, 2008.
64. Author interview with Betty Acan Ogwaro, MP Magwi County Southern Sudan Legislative Assembly, Juba, June 9, 2006.
65. Author interview with Dr Julia Dvany, Undersecretary Parliamentary Affairs, Government of Southern Sudan, Juba, October 15, 2006.
66. Discussion (with translator) with Congolese refugee camp leaders, Makpandu refugee camp, February 24, 2009.
67. JIOC, “Dungu Assessment.”
68. Author notes (translation from French) of meeting with civil society leaders from DRC and CAR, Nairobi, January 18, 2012.
69. Author notes (translation from French) of meeting with civil society leaders from DRC and CAR, Nairobi, January 18, 2012. For a more detailed explanation about the relationship between the US and the UPDF's presence in Somalia see Schomerus, Allen and Vlassenroot, “Obama Takes on the LRA.”
70. Author interview with international security expert, Juba, November 7, 2006.
71. Kaldor, “Inconclusive Wars.”
72. Branch, Displacing Human Rights, 80.
73. Author interview with member of the peace committee, Imatong, June 18, 2008.
74. Author interview with Julius Moilinga, MP Eastern Equatoria State Assembly, Juba, November 8, 2006.
75. Author interview with UPDF Colonel, Juba, December 13, 2006.
76. Author interview with chairman of the Acholi community, Juba, November 8, 2006.
77. Ochan, Responding to Violence.
78. The first-born twin would be named Opio.
79. Author interview with resident, Owiny-Kibul, November 24, 2006.
80. Kabonero, “No Genocide in Uganda.”
81. “South Sudan, Ugandan Says Sudanese Army Created a New LRA,” Sunday Monitor, November 6, 2006.
82. Research assistant interview with executive chief, Pajok, June 16, 2008.
83. The people of Acholi/Madi/Southern Bari/Lotuho/Lokoya/Lulubo, “Reconcialtiation [sic] with the Ugandans,” Juba/ Ri-Kwangba, July 2006.
84. The people of Acholi/Madi/Southern Bari/Lotuho/Lokoya/Lulubo, “Reconcialtiation [sic] with the Ugandans,” Juba/ Ri-Kwangba, July 2006.
85. Author interview with resident, Owiny-Kibul, November 23, 2006.
86. Author interview with religious leader, Ikotos, June 15, 2008.
87. Author interview with leader of women's self help cooperative, Juba, February 12, 2008.
88. Author interview with female government worker, Magwi, June 13, 2008.
89. Author interview with international security expert, Juba, February 1, 2008.
90. Author interview with chief of Aru who stayed during the war at Aru Junction, June 11, 2008.
91. Author interview with international security expert, Nabanga, April 13, 2008.
92. Group discussion with elders, chiefs and administrators in Magwi Town, June 13, 2008.
93. Ochan, Responding to Violence.
94. CHMT, “Verification Report on Armed Group Activities at Pageri Payam.”
95. Musaka, “UPDF Not Behind Attack.”
96. Dak, “Ugandan Army Implicated.”
97. Author interview with UPDF officer, Juba, December 13, 2006.
98. Author interview with resident, Owiny-Kibul, November 23, 2006.
99. Discussion with youth group, Owiny-Kibul, December 10, 2006.
100. Author interview with boma administrator and health worker, Palotaka, November 26, 2006.
101. Author notes of community meeting, Owiny-Kibul, November 28, 2006.
102. See the original report: Schomerus, The Lord's Resistance Army in Sudan. An example of press coverage is Nyakairu, “Army Looted Sudan Timber.”
103. Author interview with UPDF officer, Juba, December 13, 2006.
104. Embassy of the Republic of Uganda in Khartoum, “UPDF Does Not Loot.”
105. ICJ, “Case Concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo.”
106. Author interview with chief, Owiny-Kibul, November 23, 2006.
107. Author interview with member of peace committee, Imatong, June 18, 2008.
108. Author interview with food security consultant, Juba, January 25, 2008.
109. Ochan, Responding to Violence.
110. Author interview with Sudanese information liaison officer, Juba, January 31, 2008.
111. Olweny, “First Position Paper of the LRA Peace Delegation.”
112. Author notes of first field mission CHMT to Palotaka and Pajok, October 3, 2006.
113. Author notes, Owiny-Kibul, December, 2006.
114. Discussion with youth group, Owiny-Kibul, December 10, 2006.
115. Kleiboer, “Understanding Success and Failure of International Mediation,” 371.
116. Author discussion with international member of mediation team, Juba, April 19, 2007.
117. Author notes of community meetings in Pajok, Owiny-Kibul, December 7, 2006.
118. Discussion youth group, Owiny-Kibul, December 10, 2006.
119. Author interview with chief, Owiny-Kibul, November 23, 2006.
120. Research assistant interview with male resident, Pajok, June 17, 2008.
121. Discussion with youth group, Owiny-Kibul, December 10, 2006.
122. Author notes of community meetings, Pajok, Owiny-Kibul, December 7, 2006.
123. Discussion with youth group, Nimule, December 11, 2006.
124. Author notes of community meeting, Owiny-Kibul, November 28, 2006.
125. Discussion with youth group, Owiny-Kibul, December 10, 2006.
126. Branch and Mampilly, “Winning the War, but Losing the Peace?”
127. Abacha, “No to Ugandan army in the Southern Sudan.”
128. Discussion with youth group, Owiny-Kibul, December 10, 2006.
129. Author notes of community meetings, Pajok, Owiny-Kibul, December 7, 2006e.
130. Kaldor and Beebe, The Ultimate Weapon.
131. Kaldor and Beebe, The Ultimate Weapon., 2061–4.
132. Discussion with youth group, Owiny-Kibul, December 10, 2006.
133. In 2010 Brigadier Otema Awany, a heavily implicated officer of the UPDF, interpreted the UPDF's mandate solely in terms of its success in finding Kony. This added to the uncertainty about who was in charge. Labeja, “UPDF to Continue Pursuing Kony.”
134. Personal email from Sudanese national working for INGO, Kapoeta, May 11, 2007.
135. On the impact of structural violence in northern Uganda, see Finnstroem, Living with Bad Surroundings and Dolan, Social Torture; author notes on Juba Talks, July–December 2006.
136. For mixed signals of the international community see Schomerus, “International Involvement and Incentives.”
137. US Department of the Treasury, Office of Foreign Assets Control, “ What you need to know about Sanctions: Executive Order 13224 blocking Terrorist Property and a summary of the Terrorism Sanctions Regulations (Title 31 Part 595 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations), Terrorism List Governments Sanctions Regulations (Title 31 Part 596 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations), and Foreign Terrorist Organizations Sanctions Regulations (Title 31 Part 597 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations)”, Washington, D.C: not dated. US Committee on Foreign Affairs. “Strategy to Support the Disarmament of the Lord's Resistance Army,” 6.
138. Mamdani, Saviors and Survivors, 274, 82.
139. Kavanagh, “Uganda Is Losing U.S.-Backed Fight Against LRA Rebels.”
140. Press release: Ellecom, “Fundraising Metrics from Kony2012/ StayClassy”, March 15, 2012. The campaign drew sharp criticism, particularly for its oversight of the regional perspective. See, for examples, Rosebell Kagumire “Kony2012: My response to Invisible Children's campaign”, March 8, 2012; Mareike Schomerus, Tim Allen and Koen Vlassenroot, “Kony 2012 and the Prospect for Change: Examining the Viral Campaign”, Foreign Affairs, March 13, 2012; Mahmoom Mamdani, “The downside of the Kony2012 video”, Pambazuka News, March 13, 2012.
141. US Committee on Foreign Affairs. “Strategy to Support the Disarmament of the Lord's Resistance Army.”
142. Young, “How Do you Solve a Problem Like Joseph Kony?”
143. US Committee on Foreign Affairs. “Strategy to Support the Disarmament of the Lord's Resistance Army,” 6.
144. Kaldor, “Inconclusive Wars,” 271.
145. United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner. Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1993–2003. Report of the Mapping Exercise.
146. AFP, “UN Report Jeopardises Uganda Role in Peace Missions.”
147. US Committee on Foreign Affairs, “Strategy to Support the Disarmament of the Lord's Resistance Army.”
148. US Committee on Foreign Affairs, “Strategy to Support the Disarmament of the Lord's Resistance Army.”
149. See Human Rights Watch, The Christmas Massacres.
150. Hemmer, Expert Meeting Report. I was one of the speakers at this meeting.
151. Abdallah, “US Pushing for New Law against LRA.”
152. Kaldor and Beebe argue that US military interventions have been hampered by the US military's belief in its own power narrative. Kaldor and Beebe, The Ultimate Weapon, 748–54.
153. Mwenda, “Seven UPDF Generals Criticise Kony Attack.”
154. Cakaj, The Lord's Resistance Army of Today.