“Sometime you may leave your husband in Karuma Falls or in the forest there”: a gendered history of disappearance in Idi Amin's Uganda, 1971–79

Abstract

During Idi Amin's eight-year military dictatorship, agents of the state abducted and “disappeared” countless Ugandan citizens, as well as foreign nationals. Although most of the disappeared were men, disappearance was not simply a masculine phenomenon. This disturbing pattern of violence also had a profound impact on women and their children. In an effort to more fully engender the history of disappearance in Uganda, this article critically examines the narratives of women who testified before a 1974 Commission of Inquiry that was investigating a spate of recent disappearances in the country. More than just a tragic litany of devastation and loss, these testimonies reveal important details about the workings of Amin's security apparatus. Most significantly, they confirm that the military regime's use of violence was far more calculated and strategic than previously imagined. Disappearance was not simply an unfortunate consequence of military rule, but instead, a deliberate ruling strategy that was designed to spread fear and stifle opposition. These narratives also provide valuable information about the lives of women during this difficult period, a subject that remains woefully neglected in both scholarly and popular literature.

Keywords:

• Uganda
• Idi Amin
• truth commissions
• enforced disappearance
• military rule
• women

Acknowledgements

This article was first presented at a conference on Reframing Knowledge Production on 1970s Uganda that was held at the University of Michigan in February 2011. I would like to thank the organizers of the conference, Derek Peterson and Edgar Curtis Taylor, for inviting me to participate and for their helpful feedback on my work. I also wish to thank the anonymous reviewers for their excellent comments, as well as Holly Hanson who has been an important mentor over the last several years.

Notes

1. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 282.

2. In an open letter, Amin's brother-in-law and former Minister of Foreign Affairs Wanume Kibedi claimed, “The expression ‘disappearance’ is a euphemism for Uganda's innocent dead – the thousands of people who, since the inception of your misrule, have been liquidated for personal, political or factional reasons, entirely outside the processes of law. The victims are said to have ‘disappeared’ because after their murders their bodies are clandestinely disposed of or mutilated beyond recognition, never to be recovered by their relatives.” Kibedi, “Open Letter,” 69.

3. Melady and Melady, Idi Amin Dada, 167.

4. “Stories of ‘Killings’ Work of Confusing Agents,” Uganda Argus, March 23, 1971.

5. Republic of Uganda, Commission of Inquiry into the Missing Americans; Harry Kasozi, “Stroh, Siedle Report Out,” Uganda Argus, July 25, 1972; and International Commission of Jurists, Violations of Human Rights, 34–8.

6. Rebecca Katumba and Chris Serunjogi, “Play an Effective Role, Women Told,” Uganda Argus, November 23, 1972.

7. Joyce Mpanga, interview by the author, Kampala, May 25, 2005. Mpanga suggests that Mulindwa was later punished for speaking out. She lost her job as an educational officer and was “demoted” to her former position as headmistress of Jinja Secondary School.

8. Rugamayo was initially quoted anonymously. See International Commission of Jurists, Violations of Human Rights, 52. He later accepted responsibility for the statements. See International Commission of Jurists, Uganda and Human Rights, 112. For official coverage of the event, see “Charred Body in Car of Munno's Editor,” Voice of Uganda, January 15, 1973.

9. The missing included 11 former ministers, 22 army officers, 12 police officers, six former politicians, four prison officers, and 30 civil servants and other citizens.

10. Republic of Uganda, Official Statement Relating to Disappearance of Persons.

11. “Disappearance of People Will be Stamped Out,” Voice of Uganda, December 5, 1973.

12. International Commission of Jurists, Uganda and Human Rights, ix.

13. Kibedi, “Open Letter,” 77.

14. Republic of Uganda, President's Office Statement on Disappearances.

15. Republic of Uganda, President's Office Statement on Disappearances.

16. Legal Notice No. 2 of 1974, Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda since 25 January, 1971: Charter. The commissioners also had the authority to accept written memoranda at their discretion. They accepted a 63-page report from the International Commission of Jurists, although they refused to accept an affidavit from the former Minister of Foreign Affairs, Wanume Kibedi.

17. Government of Uganda, President's Office Statement on Disappearances.

18. For an example of advertising, see Voice of Uganda, July 10, 1974.

19. “Saied Hands in Disappearance Inquiry Report,” Voice of Uganda, June 26, 1975.

20. Carver, “Called to Account”; Hayner, Unspeakable Truths.

21. US Institute for Peace, http://www.usip.org/publications/truth-commission-uganda-74 (accessed May 20, 2011). The Institute uploaded a copy of the report in mid-2009 as part of a much larger initiative to develop a “Truth Commissions Digital Collection.” Sadly, nearly one-third of this precious document is illegible. My analysis is based on the parts that I could read.

22. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 620.

23. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 351–2.

24. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 635.

25. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 637.

26. On December 28, 1971, the government transferred 642 detainees from Luzira Prison to Mutukula Prison Farm on the Tanzanian border. All were Acholi or Langi. In mid-January 1972, the prison guards began brutally massacring the detainees. A small group managed to escape the slaughter and fled across the border into safety. For additional information on the “Mutukula massacre,” see Listowel, Amin; Martin, General Amin; and International Commission of Jurists, Violations of Human Rights.

27. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 639.

28. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 425.

29. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 406.

30. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 795. The Commission reported that this practice was common.

31. Gwyn [pseud.], Idi Amin, 189.

32. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 267.

33. Kyemba, State of Blood, 119.

34. Kyemba, State of Blood, 119–20. For a gripping literary portrayal of this macabre new profession, see Isegawa, Snakepit, 132–9.

35. International Commission of Jurists, Uganda and Human Rights, 117. For additional descriptions of these dump sites, see Allen, Interesting Times; Smith, Ghosts of Kampala; Kato, Escape from Idi Amin's Slaughterhouse; Melady and Melady, Idi Amin Dada; Kamau [pseud.] and Cameron [pseud.], Lust to Kill; and Onen, Diary of an Obedient Servant.

36. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 777–8.

37. The women reported that this was not usually the case for police officers. Their property was often returned.

38. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 680.

39. Estates of Missing Persons (Management) Decree, Decree 20 of 1973.

40. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 162.

41. Néstor Kirchner, “Children of the Dirty War: Argentina's Stolen Orphans,” The New Yorker, March 19, 2012.

42. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 705.

43. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 704.

44. Decree 13 of 1971 went into effect on March 15 and was supposed to expire in one year. Amin did not get around to renewing the decree until October 4, 1972. The Armed Forces (Powers of Arrest) Decree, or Decree 26 of 1972, extended the armed forces’ power of arrest retroactively.

45. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 715.

46. Armed Forces (Powers of Arrest) (Repeal) Decree, Decree 21 of 1973; Military Police (Powers of Arrest) Decree, Decree 19 of 1973. Amin promulgated these two decrees on the same day that he issued the Estates of Missing Persons (Management) Decree.

47. “Public Warned as Powers of Arrest Are Repealed,” Voice of Uganda, August 28, 1973.

48. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 728.

49. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 748.

50. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 710.

51. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 709.

52. Proceedings Against the Government (Protection) Decree, Decree 8 of 1972.

53. Republic of Uganda, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Disappearance of People in Uganda, 789.

54. International Commission of Jurists, Uganda and Human Rights, 123.

55. Allen suggests that Saied tried to resign after anonymous leaflets began circulating around Kampala calling for Amin to step down and turn over power to the Chief Justice. Amin suspected the judiciary was involved and sent Mustapha Adrisi – by then Minister of Defense and Minister of Internal Affairs – to talk to all judges and magistrates. Saied felt he had no choice but to resign because judicial autonomy had been compromised. However, Amin ignored his resignation. Allen, Interesting Times, 457–60.

56. “Uganda Elected to UN Commission on Human Rights,” Voice of Uganda, May 19, 1976. The three-year term began on January 1, 1977.

57. “Election to Human Rights Commission,” Voice of Uganda, May 20, 1976.

58. International Commission of Jurists, Uganda and Human Rights, vii–xii and 107.

59. Another notable example of Amin's strategic “concern” for public welfare was the movement to “Keep Uganda Clean.” See Decker, “Idi Amin's Dirty War.”

60. My conceptualization of the Commission as “political theater” comes primarily from the work of Ashforth, Politics of Official Discourse and Peterson, “Morality Plays.”