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Abstract
Although the 2011 elections in Uganda did not result into the expected split between Buganda voters and President Museveni, the electoral campaign is a good empirical entry point to understand the forms of contemporary royalist mobilisations, and the way Buganda, its nature and its fate, are conceptualised by political elites today. In the constituency of Kampala where fieldwork was conducted, Buganda was very present in the rally speeches. Political adversaries saw it as a powerful source of popular support. It thus impacted the lines against which politicians competed: their strategies and the criteria against which they were asking to be judged. In their rally speeches, electoral candidates produced conflicting, but also sometimes convergent, conceptions of what it means to be a good leader in Buganda, for both men and women. Particularly, political opponents shared and projected a behavioural conception of ‘Gandaness’ that mixes autochthony and loyalty to the king.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Robinson Kisaka for translating and assisting in the field research, all the informants and the Electoral Commission.
Notes
1. Médard, Royaume du Buganda; Mutibwa, Buganda Factor in Uganda Politics; Apter, Political Kingdom in Uganda.
2. The kingdom's land claims are twofold. In the 1970s, all the land in Uganda fell under the public domain. In the 1990s, the mailo system of land ownership (inherited from the 1900 Agreement between Buganda and Britain, which saw chiefs being allocated parcels of a 8000 square miles’ domain in the central region) was reinstated and the Kabaka's private land given back by government. But Mengo still demands that 9000 square miles that were previously owned by the kingdom be placed under the authority of the crown again. Moreover, in 1998, a Land Act defined a category of ‘bona fide’ occupants that the monarchy criticises, saying it deprives Baganda landowners from their rights, to the benefit of ‘squatters’ suspected to be of non-ganda origin and manipulated by the government in order covertly to gain control of Buganda's land. In parallel, they denounce the hoarding by state elites (said to come mainly from the West) of part of the contested 9000 square miles, and to expel Baganda tenants from some domains. From 2007, tensions were reactivated with a new bill that reinforced the tenants’ rights against expulsions. For a historical perspective, see Hanson, Landed Obligation; and Lwanga Lunyiigo, Struggle for Land in Buganda.
3. Proposal for Constitutional Changes Submitted by the Kingdom of Buganda.
4. Human Rights Watch (HRW), Investigate Use of Lethal Force during Riots”; The Monitor “200 Suspected Rioters Charged”; Anyoli and Mayanja. “164 Appear in Court Over Rioting”; Baral and Brisset-Foucault, “Les émeutes de septembre 2009.”
5. The Electoral Commission, Presidential Elections, District Tally Sheet.
6. Perrot et al., “Revisiting the 2011 Multiparty Elections.”
7. Field research was carried on for six weeks and was based on observation of rallies and interviews with candidates and activists. All rallies were in Luganda; interviews were in English.
8. Mugaju and Oloka Onyango, No Party Democracy in Uganda.
9. Low, Political Parties in Uganda; Apter, Political Kingdom in Uganda.
10. Carbone, No Party Democracy?
11. Makara, “Challenge of Building Strong Political Parties.”
12. Erdmann, “Party Research: Western European Bias.”
13. Nugent, “Winners, Losers and Also Rans.”
14. Discussion in Panel 63, ‘Parties and Elections in Sub-Saharan Africa’, during the 4th ECAS Conference, Uppsala, Sweden, June 2011.
15. Cheesman and Hinfelaar, “Parties, Platforms, and Political Mobilization.”
16. Carbone, No Party Democracy?; Le Bas, “Polarization as Craft”; van de Walle, “Meet the New Boss”; De Smedt, “No Raila, No Peace!”
17. Van de Walle and Bleck, “Parties and Issues in Francophone West Africa.”
18. Lonsdale, “Moral Ethnicity and Political Tribalism.”
19. Earle, “Reading Revolution.”
20. For an analysis of the shifts in modes of political action in Buganda in the 1940s, see Summers, “Radical Rudeness.”
21. Bareebe, “Ugandan Media Under Siege.”
22. Gyezaho, “Politics Behind the Bill.”
23. Hancock, “Patriotism and Neo-Traditionalism in Buganda.”
24. Bade, Benedicto Kiwanuka.
25. Karlström, Cultural Kingdom in Uganda, pp. 424–5.
26. Karlström, Cultural Kingdom in Uganda, pp. 424–5; Mayiga, King on the Throne.
27. Karlström, Cultural Kingdom in Uganda, p. 22.
28. Brisset-Foucault, “Reinventing a Royalist ‘Public Sphere’.”
29. Gay, Hégémonie politique, tensions foncières.
30. Nankya, “Is Suubi 2011 Any Different from Kabaka Yekka?”
31. Hancock. “Patriotism and Neo-Traditionalism in Buganda”, p. 427.
32. Mutibwa, Buganda Factor in Uganda Politics, pp. 24–44.
33. Mutibwa, Buganda Factor in Uganda Politics, p. 25.
34. Interview with C.A.B., Kampala, 14 August 2008.
35. Baral and Brisset-Foucault, “Les émeutes de septembre 2009.”
36. Bogere, “Stop Buganda Persecutions.”
37. Quoted in Ssegawa, “‘Key’ to 2011 Elections Drama.”
38. Bogere, “Stop Buganda Persecutions”; Low, Political Parties in Uganda.
39. Mwanje, “Buganda Not Linked to Pressure Group.”
40. Mwanje, “Buganda Not Linked to Pressure Group.” But it seems that Mengo was implicitly at least supporting some more than others. Suubi was not the only flag bearer of the cause: the Federal Alliance (FA), created by Betty Kamya, got a ‘cold shoulder from Mengo’; interview with an FA member, Kampala, 19 February 2011.
41. Kingdom Information Minister quoted in Butagira and Mwanje, “Courting Buganda and IPC's Seats.”
42. Kafuma and Edyegu, “Who Will be Democratic President?”; Mukiibi Sserunjoji, “Mao Cornered After Court Ruling.”
43. Nambooze, “Whose Interest Do DP Leaders Serve?”; interview with N. Mao, Mukono, January 2011.
44. The DP refused to join the IPC because of the FDC's domination on the coalition and because they wanted a DP candidate for the presidential election; Bareebe and Mulondo, “IPC Endorses Besigye for Third Battle.”
45. Nganda, “Hope is Knocking on Buganda's Door.”
46. Mulondo, “Buganda has Endured 25 Years of Frustration under NRM.”
47. Ggwanga, Federo Sceptics Answered.
48. Interview with S. Ddungu, Kampala, 5 February 2011.
50. Like Betty Kamya, former Rubaga North MP (FDC 2006–2011) and CP President Ken Lukyamuzi.
51. Mulondo, “EC in Spotlight Over Rubaga”; Mulondo and Wesaka, “Drama as EC Recounts Rubaga North Votes”; Mulondo and Wesaka, “Rubaga North Vote Recount Battle”; Wesaka, “Jubilation as MP Singh is Thrown Out”; Otage, “Katongole Singh Loses Parliamentary Seat”; Kasozi and Wesaka, “Kasibante Wins Appeal Against Singh Katongole.”
52. IPC rally, Kasubi Market, 3 February 2011.
53. SDP rally, Mengo Market, 7 February 2011.
54. SDP rally, Mengo Market, 7 February 2011.
55. SDP rally, Mengo Market, 7 February 2011.
56. NRM rally, Lubya, 29 January 2011.
57. SDP rally, Mengo Market, 7 February 2011.
58. Suubi rally, Masiiro, 3 February 2011.
59. DP rally, Lubya, 4 February 2011.
60. Suubi rally, Mengo Market, 10 February 2011.
61. Suubi rally, Mengo Market, 10 February 2011.
62. SDP rally, Mengo Market, 7 February 2011.
63. NRM rally, Lubya, 29 January 2011.
64. Suubi rally, Bakuli Market, 27 January 2011.
65. Suubi rally, Masiiro, 3 February 2011.
66. Suubi rally, Mengo Market, 10 February 2011.
67. Suubi rally, Mengo Market, 10 February 2011.
68. Suubi rally, Mengo Market, 10 February 2011.
69. On the ambivalent role of war in political imaginaries in central Uganda, see Banégas, “Entre guerre et democratie.”
70. Earle, “Reading Revolution.”
71. On the shift of the attributes of honour in Buganda, see Iliffe, Honour in African History.
72. ‘Akalo ka Buganda’, by William Kibuka.
73. Earle, “Reading Revolution,” p. 514.
74. DP rally, Lubya, 4 February 2011. On the Exodus and Kikuyu political thought, see Lonsdale, “Moral Economy of Mau Mau,” pp. 383–4.
75. Summers, “Grandfathers, Grandsons”; Earle, “Reading Revolution.”
76. Hancock, “Patriotism and Neo-Traditionalism in Buganda.”
77. IPC rally, Kasubi Market, 3 February 2011.
78. IPC rally, Kasubi Market, 3 February 2011.
79. Suubi rally, Mengo Market, 10 February 2011.
80. Tripp, “Local Women's Associations.”
81. Karlström, Cultural Kingdom in Uganda, pp. 439–43; Tamale, When Hens Begin to Crow.
82. Agiro, “Our Politicians.”
83. IPC rally, Kasubi Market, 3 February 2011.
84. IPC rally, Kasubi Market, 3 February 2011.
85. The reference to Brecht's play is not arbitrary: Mother Courage and her Children was translated in Luganda (Maama Nalukalala Ne'zzadde) and produced at the National Theatre in Kampala in 1995. It was the ‘first authorized production of a Brecht play in an African language’. The play pictures the virtues needed by women to protect their children from the war, which resonates a lot with Ganda postcolonial experiences; Thomson, Brecht, pp. 168–79.
86. IPC rally, Kasubi Market, 3 February 2011.
87. Summers, “Grandfathers and Grandsons”; Summers, “All the Kabaka's Wives.”
88. Summers, “Grandfathers and Grandsons”; Summers, “All the Kabaka's Wives.”
89. Summers, “Grandfathers and Grandsons”; Summers, “All the Kabaka's Wives.”
90. Richards, “Authority Patterns in Traditional Buganda.”
91. IPC rally Kasubi Market, 3 February 2011.
92. Summers, “All the Kabaka's Wives.”
93. Bayart, State in Africa; Lonsdale, “Political Accountability in African history.”
94. Baral and Brisset-Foucault, “Les émeutes de septembre 2009”; Lindemann, “Exclusionary Elite Bargains,” pp. 32–8.
95. Interview in Kampala, March 2013. Also Musehemeza, Politics and Empowerment of Banyarwanda; The Observer, “Riots Continue, 3 More Dead”; Namugoji, “Buganda Kingdom FM Radios Shut Down.”
96. Suubi rally, Bakuli Market, 27 January 2011; Suubi rally, Mengo Market, 10 February 2011.
97. Suubi rally, Mengo Market, 10 February 2011.
98. Suubi rally, Masiiro, 3 February 2011.
99. Suubi rally, Mengo Market, 10 February 2011.
100. SDP rally, Mengo Market, 7 February 2011.
101. SDP rally, Mengo Market, 7 February 2011.
102. ‘Kavamawanga’, by William Kibuka.
103. ‘Kavamawanga’, by William Kibuka.
104. ‘Bukedde Banyanike’, by Fred Sebale.
105. Interview with a former Shariat editor, Kampala, 21 July 2008. For example, see The Shariat, “Respect Uganda's Presidential Jet”; Jagwara, “Secrets Behind Museveni's Victory”; Okello, “Otema Allimadi Keep Quiet”; and Assalam, “At Last the Coffin for Education is Brought.” The newspaper was keen to cover the Allied Democratic Forces, a rebel group on the border between Uganda and DRC partly composed of radical Muslims with links with the Rwandese Interahamwe; Titeca and Vlassenroot, “Rebels Without Borders.”
106. NRM rally, Lubya, 29 January 2011.
107. NRM rally, Lubya, 29 January 2011.