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Abstract
Kenyan election campaigning took a novel turn in 2013 with the introduction of televised presidential debates. The two debates were widely celebrated as signalling a positive turn in Kenyan campaigning, from the politics of personality and ethnicity towards a more sober, issue-based form of electoral competition. Organised by the nation's main media houses, the debates offer a unique lens through which to consider the role the media defined for itself during the election period. This paper argues that the debates were staged as part of the media's broader project of ‘peace promotion’. In this way, actual debate between the candidates was of secondary importance to the spectacle of having all eight candidates amicably share the debate floor. This paper's approach thus emphasises the theatrical nature of the performances and the deliberate way in which they were designed to present a portrait of Kenya's maturing democracy. The paper concludes by situating these media spectacles within what is perceived to be a broader trend in Kenya whereby seductive images of the nation's future are produced and projected, thereby distracting from present realities.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Professor Ambreena Manji and Professor John Harrington for their encouragement and advice throughout the preparation of this article. In addition, the authors are grateful to Gabrielle Lynch, Nic Cheeseman, Justin Willis and Karuti Kanyinga for organising the elections workshop in Nairobi, and for providing a forum in which to hone their ideas. The authors also would like to acknowledge the anonymous reviewers, whose valuable comments were welcomingly received. Finally, they thank all the interviewees for sparing the time to talk frankly and openly with them. All views expressed are the authors’ own.
Notes
1. Interview with an RMS journalist, RM Communication Centre, Nairobi, May 22, 2013.
2. CitationNi Chonghaile, “Kenya Hosts First Televised Presidential Debate.”
3. CitationMundi, “All set for Kenya's Presidential Debate.”
4. CitationIpsos Public Affairs, Political Barometer Survey, pp. 6, 10.
5. CitationHoward, Media & Elections, p. 2.
6. CitationFrère, Elections and the Media, p. 13.
7. CitationSomerville, “Violence, Hate Speech and Inflammatory Broadcasting,” p. 89.
8. CitationOrengo, “Police Most Corrupt.”
9. CitationOrengo, “Police Most Corrupt.”, p. 90.
10. Interview with an RMS journalist, RMS Communication Centre, Nairobi, May 22, 2013.
11. CitationBrisset-Foucault, “Electoral Campaign on Television.”
12. CitationWrong, “To Be Prudent.”
13. CitationAllen, “Kenya's Journalists Start to Break.”
14. CitationKittony, “Role of the Media.”
15. For example, CitationDaily Nation, “Presidential Debates Will be Good for Kenya.”
16. CitationGithongo, “Rethinking the Kenya Project.”
17. CitationNi Chonghaile, “Kenya Hosts First Televised Presidential Debate.”
18. Interview with Nation Media journalist 1, Nation Media Centre, May 15, 2013.
19. CitationKellner, “Media Spectacle and Media Events,” p. 76.
20. Interview with an RMS journalist, RMS Communication Centre, Nairobi, May 22, 2013; CitationSugow, “How the Presidential Debate will be Conducted.”
21. For example, CitationAgha, “Tropic Aggression.”
22. For example, CitationWatson, “Theatre and the Presidential Debates.”
23. For more information, see CitationIpsos Public Affairs, Political Barometer Survey.
24. CitationKipkemboi, “Presidential Debates Can be Game-Changer.”
25. CitationHoward, “International Media Assistance.”
26. A Kenyan NGO focusing on media development.
27. CitationBrisset-Foucault, “Electoral Campaign on Television,” p. 115.
28. Interview with an RMS journalist, RMS Communication Centre, Nairobi, May 22, 2013.
29. Interview with Nation Media journalist 2, Nation Centre Nairobi, 15 May 2013.
30. CitationDaily Nation, “Presidential Hopefuls to Slug it Out.” The first debate was originally scheduled to take place on 26 November 2012, but was postponed until the final electoral alliances had been decided.
31. Telephone interview with Simon Waddington, May 20, 2013.
32. Telephone interview with Simon Waddington, May 20, 2013.
33. Telephone interview with Simon Waddington, May 20, 2013.
34. CitationMatata, “Muite and Dida to Participate.”
35. CitationLeftie, “CORD and Jubilee in Blame Game.”
36. CitationLeftie, “CORD and Jubilee in Blame Game.”
37. Interview with an RMS journalist, RMS Communication Centre, Nairobi, May 22, 2013.
38. Interview with Nation Media journalist 1, Nation Media Centre, 15 May 2013.
39. CitationMwiti, “Winners and Losers.”
40. CitationDaily Nation, “Presidential Debates Will Be Good For Kenya.”
41. Interview with Nation Media journalist 1, Nation Media Centre, 15 May 2013.
42. Interview with an RMS journalist, RMS Communication Centre, Nairobi, May 22, 2013.
43. CitationKipkemboi, “Presidential Debates Can be Game-Changer.”
44. CitationClottey, “Kenya to Hold Final Presidential Debate.”
45. Interview with an RMS journalist, RMS Communication Centre, Nairobi, May 22, 2013.
46. CitationGoffman, Presentation of Self.
47. CitationBranch and Cheeseman, “Conclusion: Failure of Nation-Building,” p. 244.
48. CitationKagwanja and Southall, “Introduction: Kenya – A Democracy in Retreat?,” p. 275.
49. CitationThe Standard, “Editorial: Today's Presidential Debate.”
50. CitationWaki Commission, Report of the Commission of Inquiry, pp. 216–17.
51. CitationMakona, “Most Political Rallies.”
52. CitationMakona, “Most Political Rallies.”
53. CitationNdonga, “Kenyans Hail the Presidential Debate.”
54. CitationLwabukuna, “Kenya's First Presidential Election Debate.”
55. CitationDaily Nation, “Presidential Debates Will be Good for Kenya.”
56. CitationKipkemboi, “Presidential Debates Can be Game-Changer.”
57. CitationThe Standard, “Crazy Questions for 2013 Presidential Debate.”
58. CitationNodia, “Nationalism and Democracy,” p. 16.
59. For example, CitationZilper, “Lessons Kenya Can Learn.”
60. CitationOnyango-Obbo, “Why Kenya Has Presidential Debates.”
61. CitationMachira, “Local Politicians Inspired.”
62. Article 7 (1).
63. CitationRajab, “Scholars Call for Use of Kiswahili.” The poll conducted by IPSOS Synovate also noted ‘a large proportion of the audience’ had been excluded by the decision to hold the debates in English.
64. CitationRajab, “Scholars Call for Use of Kiswahili.” The poll conducted by IPSOS Synovate also noted ‘a large proportion of the audience’ had been excluded by the decision to hold the debates in English.
65. In response to the complaints the second debate contained a brief section in Kiswahili, moderated by Joe Ageyo, but again there was no on-screen translation service provided for the rest of event.
66. Interview with Daily Nation journalist 2, Nation Centre, Nairobi, May 15, 2013.
67. CitationHaugerud, Culture of Politics in Modern Kenya, p. 63.
68. CitationGluckman, Rituals of Rebellion in South-East Africa.
69. CitationSchröter, “Rituals of Rebellion”, p. 44.
70. CitationMcLeod, “Sociodrama of Presidential Politics,” p. 360.
71. Interview with Professor Levi Obonyo, Daystar University Nairobi, May 14, 2013.
72. Interview with Professor Levi Obonyo, Daystar University Nairobi, May 14, 2013.
73. Interview with Professor Levi Obonyo, Daystar University Nairobi, May 14, 2013.
74. The day before the second debate, for instance, the presidential candidates attended a ‘national day of repentance and prayers’ at Uhuru Park, which was presided over by the self-styled Prophet David Uwuor.
75. CitationIpsos Public Affairs, Political Barometer Survey, pp. 6, 33–4.
76. CitationIpsos Public Affairs, Political Barometer Survey, pp. 6, 33–4.
77. Telephone interview with Simon Waddington, May 20, 2013.
78. CitationEggen, “Performing Good Governance,” p. 2.
79. CitationFortin, “Kenya Seeks Progress.”
80. See the Vision 2030 website: http://www.vision2030.go.ke/.
81. Brisset-Foucault's analysis of the media's actions in 2007 is also instructive here; CitationBrisset-Foucault, “Electoral Campaign on Television.”