Cohesion through socialization: liberation, tradition and modernity in the forging of the Rwanda Defence Force (RDF)

Abstract

Since the collapse of Rwanda's state institutions in 1994, including the state's security apparatus, the military has been at the centre of the country's politics and development. Crucial to the political and economic strategy of the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) is the national army. However, analysis is scarce on the politics of the Rwandan military and how it has been constituted and forged since the RPF came to power. This paper seeks to address this under-researched area by investigating the processes used by the government of Rwanda to develop its national defence forces. In doing so it avoids simplistic narratives such as ethnic subjugation and instead highlights the unique factors leading to the creation of today's RDF and how it has been forged through various socialization experiences such as training, fighting together and peacekeeping as well as an emphasis on welfare and political education. Furthermore, it is posited that the military reflects the broader political landscape in Rwanda, and that decision-making is underscored by concepts of tradition, liberation and modernity. How these concepts interrelate is the key to understanding the military in Rwanda, but also wider governance mechanisms and strategies employed by the RPF.

Keywords:

• Rwanda
• military
• Rwanda Defence Force
• Rwandan Patriotic Front
• security sector reform
• military integration

Notes

1. I use two terms throughout when describing the Rwandan military: Rwanda Patriotic Army (RPA), the name of the military wing of the liberation movement, for pre-2003; and RDF after 2003 reflecting the rebranding of the institution.

2. Rusagara, History of the Military in Rwanda.

3. Reyntjens, Great African War; Prunier, From Genocide to Continental War; Clark, African Stakes of the Congo War; Stearns, Dancing in the Glory of Monsters.

4. Amnesty International, Rwanda Shrouded in Secrecy; UN OHCHR, UN OHCHR Mapping Report.

5. Reyntjens, “Rwanda, Ten Years On,” p. 187.

6. This analysis is also informed by experience in several positions in government and multilateral organizations including as a senior research analyst at the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO), head of applied research at an African Union (AU)-affiliated peacekeeping training centre and a political affairs officer for the United Nations (UN) Group of Experts on DRC in 2012.

7. Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics, p. 46.

8. Huntington, Soldier and the State.

9. Finer, Man on Horseback; Janowitz, Military Institutions and Coercion, N'Diaye, Challenge of Institutionalising Civilian Control.

10. Janowitz, Military Institutions and Coercion.

11. Luckham, Nigerian Military; Gutteridge, Military in African Politics, p. 10.

12. Waldorf, Transitional Justice and DDR.

13. Interview with Patrick Mazimpaka, Kigali, August 2013; also Prunier, Rwanda Crisis, pp. 93–116; and Mushameza, Politics of Empowerment of Banyarwanda Refugees, pp. 100–12.

14. Interview with Brig. Gen. Frank Rusagara, Kigali, August 2013.

15. Interview with Brig. Gen. Joseph Nzambitwa, Kigali, August 2013. Also Orth, “Rwanda's Hutu Extremist Insurgency and Africa Rights, Insurgency in the Northwest.”

16. For an insight into some of the key figures in the security services, see Prunier, Rwanda Crisis, p. 117; Mushameza, Politics of Empowerment of Banyarwanda Refugees, pp. 117–18; and Rudasingwa, Healing a Nation, pp. 431–5.

17. Gutteridge, Military in African Politics, pp. 6–7.

18. Luckham, Nigerian Military, p. 111.

19. Odetola, Military Regimes and Development, p. 23.

20. Luckham, Nigerian Military, p. 8.

21. Luckham, Nigerian Military, p. 48 and 109–145.

22. Mwenda and Tangri, “Patronage Politics, Donor Reforms,” pp. 449–67; Mwenda and Tangri, “Military Corruption & Ugandan Politics,” pp. 539–52.

23. Chan, Southern Africa; for motivations of African forces for conflict in the Congo see also Clark, African Stakes of the Congo War.

24. N'Diaye, Challenge of Institutionalising Civilian Control, p. 123; Odetola, Military Regimes and Development, p. 23.

25. Rupiya, Evolutions & Revolutions; also N'Diaye, Challenge of Institutionalising Civilian Control, p. 123.

26. Of the many sources, see Chretien, Great Lakes of Africa; Newbury, Land Beyond the Mists; Vansina, Antecedents to Modern Rwanda; Willame, Banyarwanda et Banyamulenge; Vlassenroot, “Citizenship, Identity Formation & Conflict”; Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers; Mushemeza, Banyarwanda Refugees in Uganda; and Prunier, Rwanda Crisis. Also Kiwuwa, Ethnic Politics and Democratic Transition, pp. 61–6, for a useful summary.

27. Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers, p. 165.

28. Chretien, Great Lakes of Africa, chs 1–3.

29. Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers, p. 165.

30. Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers, p. 168.

31. Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers, p. 182; Prunier, Rwanda Crisis, p. 72.

32. Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers, p. 251.

33. IRIN News, “Humanitarian Crisis Looms for Migrants.”

34. The first Banyarwanda recruits to the NRA came from the Luwero Traingle. Banyarwanda in Luwero were not in camps but integrated into society.

35. Interview with Brig. Gen. Joseph Nzambitwa, Kigali, August 2013.

36. Ngoga, “Uganda: The National resistance Army.”

37. The Ugandan military, or UPDF, also values the role of political commissars emanating from its NRA liberation days.

38. Different to Ingando used for civilians; Thompson, Reeducation for Reconciliation; Mgbako, “Ingando Solidarity Camps,” pp. 201–24.

39. Interview with AC Police Stanislas Nsabimana, Kigali, August 2013.

40. Interview with Patrick Mazimpaka, August 2013. Kigali.

41. Rusagara, “Unconventional Challenges and Non-traditional Roles,” pp. 107–20.

42. Decalo, “Modalities of Civil–Military Stability,” pp. 547–78.

43. Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda. http://www.mod.gov.rw/IMG/doc/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_Rda.doc/.

44. Constitution of Kenya. http://www.kenyaembassy.com/pdfs/The%20Constitution%20of%20Kenya.pdf/.

45. UPDF Act 2005. http://www.africanchildforum.org/clr/Legislation%20Per%20Country/Uganda/uganda_defence_2005_en.pdf/.

46. Rusagara, History of the Military in Rwanda.

47. The Rwanda Defence Force Commanders' Seminar Report. MINADEFF, 2005; The Rwanda Defence Force Commanders’ Seminar Report. MINADEFF, 2006 (author's files).

48. UN OHCHR, UN OHCHR Mapping Report, 2010; Reyntjens, Great African War; Prunier, From to Continental War; Clark, African Stakes of the Congo War.

49. Beswick, “Peacekeeping, Regime Security”; Beswick, “Role of the Military.”

50. Interview with the former MD CSS Zigama Bank, Kigali, August 2013.

51. Interview with the former MD CSS Zigama Bank, Kigali, August 2013.

52. Beswick, “Peacekeeping, Regime Security”; Beswick, “Role of the Military”; Decalo, “Modalities of Civil–Military Stability,” pp. 565–7.

53. Mushameza, Politics of Empowerment of Banyarwanda Refugees, pp. 112–18.

54. Rusagara, History of the Military in Rwanda, p. 195.

55. Rusagara, History of the Military in Rwanda, p. 198.

56. Beswick, “Peacekeeping, Regime Security”; Beswick, “Role of the Military.”

57. Rwandan Ministry of Defence, “Rwanda Deploys Peacekeeping Troops.”

58. Interview with Brig. Gen. Safari, Rwanda Military Academy Gako, August 2013.

59. Luckham, Nigerian Military, p. 8.