Violence, decolonisation and the Cold War in Kenya's north-eastern province, 1963–1978

Abstract

The paper explores the extent to which other domestic political matters and post-colonial ties to Britain shaped the Kenyan Government's actions in northern Kenya between independence in 1963 and the death of President Jomo Kenyatta in 1978. The paper has a particular emphasis on the Shifta War of 1963–1967. Disputes between rival nationalist leaders at independence and doubts about the loyalty of the armed forces meant Kenyatta concentrated on protecting his regime from the threat of coups and other challenges than he was with using violence to extend state authority in north-eastern Kenya. That same calculation meant Kenyatta looked to Britain for support, in particular in the form of military backing for his government in the event of a coup or invasion from Somalia. The paper argues that the compromises made between British and Kenyan actors allow us to understand the particular nature of the Kenyan state's actions in north-eastern province over this period.

Keywords:

• Kenya
• Somalia
• UK
• counterinsurgency
• Cold War
• decolonisation

Acknowledgements

This study is supported by The Arts & Humanities Research Council of the UK, under grant AH/H037934/1; ‘Empire Loyalists; Histories of Rebellion and Collaboration’ and the Research Council of Norway, under project 214349/F10; and ‘The Dynamics of State Failure and Violence,’ administered by the Peace Research Institute Oslo.

Notes

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2. Kenyan Delegation, “Pan African Unity and the NFD Question,” 37.

3. Kenyan Delegation, “Pan African Unity and the NFD Question,” 39.

4. Kenyan Delegation, “Pan African Unity and the NFD Question,” 39.

5. Anderson, “Yours in Struggle,” 547–64.

6. Branch, Kenya, 4–5.

7. Howell, “An Analysis of Kenyan Foreign Policy,” 39.

8. Kyle, Politics of the Independence of Kenya, 136–59.

9. Makinda, “From Quiet Diplomacy to Cold War politics,” 307–19.

10. Schmidt, Foreign Intervention, 143–64.

11. Larmer, “Local Conflicts in a Transnational War,” 89–108.

12. Hoskyns, Case Studies, 1.

13. For a longer history, see Turton, “Somali Resistance.”

14. Mburu, Bandits, 133.

15. Mburu, Bandits, 132–72.

16. Whittaker, “The Socioeconomic Dynamics of the Shifta Conflict,” 391–408.

17. Whittaker, “Forced villagization,” 343–64.

18. Hogg, “The New Pastoralism,” 322; and Khalif and Oba, “Gaafa dhaabaa.”

19. Kenya National Archive (KNA) DC/GRS/3/7/12, Worthy to Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Local Government, 24 July 1964.

20. Lewis, “Recent Developments in the Somali Dispute,” 110.

21. Laitin and Samatar, “Somalia and the World Economy,” 59.

22. KNA AE/19/34, Michuki to Matiba, 12 January 1968.

23. For the origins of this policy see Barnes, “The Somali Youth League”.

24. Lewis, “The Referendum in French Somaliland.”

25. KNA AE/19/34, Gachui to Permanent Secretary, Office of the President, 30 January 1968.

26. Branch, Kenya, 35–66.

27. Parsons, “The Lanet Incident,” 51–70.

28. CIA Records Search Tool (CREST), US National Archives College Park (NACP), Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Office of Current Intelligence, “Leftist Activity in Kenya,” 31 July 1964, 7; and Parsons, “Wakamba Warriors,” 671–701.

29. UK National Archives Public Record Office (UKNA PRO) DO 213/159, British Land Forces Kenya to Ministry of Defence et al., 7 September 1964. See also Parsons, The 1964 Army Mutinies, 187.

30. CREST, NACP, CIA, “Kenya's Fight against Subversion,” 6 May 1966, 6.

31. Branch, Kenya, 47–9.

32. National Archives’ Access to Archival Databases (NAAAD) website [http://aad.archives.gov/aad/], US Embassy Nairobi to State Department, 28 November 1973.

33. Parsons, The 1964 Army Mutinies, 171.

34. NACP, POL 23–2 Kenya, Central Foreign Policy Files (CFPF), Record Group (RG) 59, Ferguson to State Department, 7 May 1967, 2.

35. UKNA PRO FCO 31/850, Norris to Smedley, 21 April 1971. See also Parsons, The 1964 Army Mutinies, 189–90.

36. CREST, NACP, CIA, “Kenya's Fight against Subversion,” 6 May 1966, 6.

37. NAAAD, US Embassy Nairobi to State Department, 28 November 1973.

38. Africa Report, “The armies of Africa,” 47.

39. CREST, NACP, CIA Directorate of Intelligence, “Intelligence Handbook for Special Operations: Somali Republic,” July 1966, 79.

40. CREST, NACP, CIA, “Weekly Summary,” 1 July 1966, 13.

41. CREST, NACP, CIA, “Central Intelligence Bulletin,” 28 December 1963.

42. CREST, NACP, CIA, “Central Intelligence Bulletin,” 15 July 1966, 3.

43. CREST, NACP, CIA, “Weekly Summary,” 1 July 1966, 13.

44. KNA AE/19/34, Kibinge to Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Commerce & Industry, 1 July 1966.

45. NACP, POL Political Affairs Kenya, Records of the Bureau of African Affairs 1958–66 (RBAA), RG 59, Vass to State Department, 18 May 1963, 5–6.

46. CREST, NACP, CIA Office of Current Intelligence, “Leftist Activity in Kenya”, 31 July 1964, 5.

47. CREST, NACP, CIA Office of Current Intelligence, “Independent Kenya's Prospects Under Jomo Kenyatta”, 6 December 1963, 9.

48. UKNA PRO FO 371/178520, De Freitas to Commonwealth Relations Office, 30 April 1964.

49. CREST, NACP, CIA, “Kenya's Fight against Subversion”, 6 May 1966, 5–6.

50. Branch, Kenya, 39–40.

51. UKNA PRO FCO 31/597, Bellers to Purcell, 29 December 1970. See also Parsons, The 1964 Army Mutinies, 172, 190.

52. UKNA PRO PREM 15/509, Peck, “The Outlook for British Interests in Kenya up to 1975,” 22 April 1970, 2; and Percox, Britain, Kenya and the Cold War, 208–11.

53. Whittaker, “Forced Villagisation.”

54. KNA PC/GRSSA/3/3/3, District Commissioner (DC) Mandera, Mandera District Annual Report 1966, 1.

55. KNA PC/GRSSA/3/13/27, Kenya Government Information Services, North Eastern Province, Garissa Handout, 27 April 1966.

56. KNA PC/GRSSA/3/21/9, DC Wajir, Wajir District Monthly Report, June 1969, 1.

57. KNA PC/GRSSA/3/13/27, Kenya Government Information Services, North Eastern Province, Garissa Handout, 13 July 1966.

58. KNA PC/GRSSA/3/3/3, DC Mandera, Mandera District Annual Report 1967, 3.

59. NACP, POL 32–1 Kenya-Somalia, CFPF, RG 59, Ferguson to State Department, 13 February 1967.

60. NACP, POL Kenya-Somalia, CFPF, RG 59, Ferguson to State Department, 1 March 1967.

61. NACP, POL 32–1 Kenya-Somalia, CFPF, RG 59, Ferguson to State Department, 2 March 1967.

62. NACP, POL 23–2 Kenya, CFPF, RG 59, Ferguson to State Department, 7 May 1967.

63. NACP, POL 23 Kenya, CFPF, RG 59, Ferguson to State Department, 8 September 1967.

64. CREST, NACP, CIA, “Central Intelligence Bulletin,” 13 May 1964, 6.

65. Branch, Kenya, 49–50.

66. NACP, POL 32–1 Kenya-Somalia, CFPF, RG 59, US Embassy London to State Department, 13 January 1967.

67. NACP, POL Kenya-Somalia, CFPF, RG 59, Thurston to US Embassy Nairobi, 10 February 1967.

68. NACP, POL 23 Kenya, CFPF, RG 59, Strong, “Memorandum of Conversation: Kenyan Internal Security Problems,” 2 February 1967, 1.

69. NACP, POL 17 Kenya, CFPF, RG 59, Ferguson to State Department, 31 January 1967, 1.

70. NACP, POL 7 Kenya, CFPF, RG 59, Ferguson to State Department, 7 April 1967. For the full list, NACP, POL 23 Kenya, CFPF, RG 59, Moi to Ferguson, 6 April 1967.

71. NACP, POL 32–1 Kenya-Somalia, CFPF, RG 59, Bruce to State Department, 10 February 1967.

72. KNA KA/6/23, Shora to Kenyatta, 5 May 1964.

73. NACP, POL 17 Kenya, CFPF, RG 59, Ferguson to State Department, 31 January 1967, 2.

74. Whittaker, Insurgency and Counterinsurgency; and Whittaker, “Forced Villagisation.”

75. KNA PC/GRSSA/3/25/22, Minutes of meeting of the North Eastern Region Regional Assembly, 4–5 December 1964, 4–5.

76. UKNA PRO FCO 31/870, Norris to Douglas-Home, 30 March 1971.

77. KNA PC/GRSSA/3/3/3, DC Mandera, Mandera District Annual Report 1966, 2.

78. KNA PC/GRSSA/3/21/19, DO Masalani to DC Garissa, 23 April 1968, 2.

79. NACP, POL Kenya-Somalia, CFPF, RG 59, Ferguson to State Department, 21 June 1967.

80. KNA AE/19/34, Ministry of Economic Planning & Development, “Development in North-Eastern Province and Isiolo and Marsabit Districts of Eastern Province,” 1967, 1.

81. NACP, POL 23 Kenya, CFPF, RG 59, Ferguson to State Department, 14 December 1968.

82. KNA KA/6/23, A.S. Khalif, “The North Eastern Region of Kenya,” 19 January 1965, 4.

83. UKNA PRO 31/597, Steele to Arthur et al, 24 September 1970, 1–2.

84. Lewis, Understanding Somalia, 37–8.

85. Payton, “The Somali Coup.”

86. CREST, NACP, CIA Office of National Estimates, “Changing Attitudes in Somalia,” 21 January 1970, 2–3.

87. NACP, POL Kenya-A, SNF, RG 59, Looram to State Department, 13 April 1973, 2.

88. NACP, POL Kenya-A, SNF, RG 59, Looram to State Department, 13 April 1973, 2.

89. CREST, NACP, CIA, “East Africa: Outside Influence and Potential Conflict,” 7 May 1975, 5.

90. Schmidt, Foreign Intervention, 149.

91. NACP, POL KENYA-A, SNF, RG 59, Lindstrom to State Department, 6 April 1973, 2.

92. NACP, POL KENYA-A, SNF, RG 59, Looram to State Department, 27 June 1973, 2.

93. CREST, NACP, CIA Office of National Estimates, “Growing Challenges to the Old Guard in Kenya,” 27 August 1970.

94. UKNA PRO PREM 15/509, Peck, “The Outlook for British Interests in Kenya Up to 1975,” 22 April 1970, 2.

95. CREST, NACP, CIA, “Weekly Summary,” 3 October 1969, 18.

96. UKNA PRO FCO 31/1191, Dawbarn to Smedley, 21 June 1972, 2.

97. NAAAD, Lindstrom to State Department, 16 May 1973, 1.

98. Markakis, “The Military State”.

99. CREST, NACP, CIA, “Weekly Summary,” 23 April 1976, 13.

100. CREST, NACP, CIA, “National Intelligence Daily Cable,” 16 August 1977, 4.

101. UKNA PRO PREM 15/509, Peck, “The Outlook for British Interests in Kenya Up to 1975,” 22 April 1970, 14–5.

102. CREST, NACP, CIA Directorate of Intelligence, “British Arms Exports to Less Developed Countries, 1966-69,” October 1970, 2.

103. NACP, POL Kenya-A, SNF, RG 59, Annenberg to State Department, 11 December 1972.

104. CREST, NACP, CIA, “National Intelligence Daily Cable,” 11 October 1977, 6; and CREST, NACP, CIA National Foreign Assessment Center, “Africa Review,” 22 December 1978, 1–2.

105. UKNA PRO FCO 31/2322, “Anglo-US Talks on Africa 2–3 May 1978: The Future of Kenya.”

106. Lochery, “Rendering Difference Visible.”

107. Kalyvas and Balcells, “International System and Technologies of Rebellion.” 415–29.

108. See for example Laitin, “Somali Territorial Claims.”

109. Richards, “New War,” 1–2.

110. Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence in Civil War.

111. Bøas and Dunn, African Guerrillas; Clapham, ed. African Guerrillas; and Reno, Warfare in Independent Africa.

112. Odhiambo, “Democracy and the Ideology of Order,” 177–202; and Mueller, “Government and opposition,” 399–427.

113. CREST, NACP, CIA, “East Africa: Outside Influence and Potential Conflict,” 7 May 1975, 8.

114. Mboya, “Some Reflections on the Development of a Foreign Policy,” 233.

115. Schmidt, Foreign Intervention, 143.

116. CREST, NACP, CIA, “East Africa: Outside Influence and Potential Conflict,” 7 May 1975, 3; and NACP, POL KENYA-A, SNF, RG 59, Lindstrom to State Department, 6 April 1973, 2.

117. Clapham, Africa and the International System, 142–3.