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ABSTRACT
Malawi has recently seen a rise in the number and prominence of formal ethnic associations. What is the nature of these organizations and what effect will they have on politics? To answer these questions, we conducted in-depth interviews with current and former leaders of the three main ethnic associations, Mulhako wa Alhomwe, Mzimba Heritage Association, and Chewa Heritage Foundation. The interviews and other documentary sources allow us to place these new organizations in historical context, describe their organizational structures, and examine their potential political influence. We depart from other studies in arguing that these ethnic associations are unlikely to pose a threat to state authority in the near term, and they have shown little or no sign of fomenting ethnic conflict. However, these ethnic associations have the potential to be used for political mobilization, especially when ethnic traditional authorities lack the capacity and autonomy to block the political manipulation of ethnic organizations.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Daniel Posner and David Laitin for feedback on an earlier version of this paper. All errors are the responsibility of the authors.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes
1. Attafuah, “Ethnic Diversity”; Miquel, “The Control of Politicians”; Ajulu, “Politicised Ethnicity”. Attafuah's is a representative of works that depict ethnic diversity in positive terms. The other two present an opposite view.
2. See Posner, Institutions and Ethnic Politics; Kaspin, “The politics of Ethnicity”; and Ferree, “The Micro-foundations of Ethnic Voting”.
3. Government of Malawi, Malawi Population and Housing Census Main Report, 20.
4. Eggen, “Chiefs and Everyday Governance.”
5. Robinson, “Ethnic Diversity, Segregation.”
6. McCracken, “Democracy and Nationalism,” 387; Muluzi et al., Democracy with a Price, 38–51; 68–78.
7. Patel and Wahman, “Presidential, Parliamentary and Local Elections;” Rakner, Svåsand, and Khembo, “Fission and Fusions”; Svåsand, “Regulation of Political Parties”; and Young, “An Initial Look.”
8. Dulani and Dionne, “Presidential, Parliamentary, and Local”; Ferree and Horowitz, “Ties that Bind?”; Kaspin, “The Politics of Ethnicity.”
9. Phiri, From Nguni to Ngoni; Lisa. “The Politics of Cultural Promotion”.
10. Phiri, From Nguni to Ngoni.
11. Ibid.
12. Interview with MZIHA4, 16 July 2016. The creation of an ethnic association for the Ngoni was spearheaded by Aupson Thole and Boston Soko in consultation with Tito Banda and D.D. Phiri. The individuals attending the first organizing meeting for MZIHA, held 18 February 1998, included Robson Chirwa, Aupson Thole, Victoria Mazunda, and around 20 important people within Mzimba. The first executive committee included Robson Chirwa (Chairperson), Victoria Mazunda (Vice Chairperson), Aupson Thole (General Secretary), Badokota Jere (Vice General Secretary), Chris Mzumala (Treasurer), and E. Munthali (Vice Treasurer).
13. Interview with MZIHA4, 16 July 2016.
14. Lisa, “The Politics of Cultural Promotion”.
15. Ibid.
16. Interview with CHEFO2, 18 July 2016.
17. Ibid.
18. See Boeder, Silent Majority.
19. See Ibid.; Kayira and Banda, “Materialism and Ethnicity”.
20. Interview with MWA2, 18 July 2016. In addition to the president, the main actors also included Ken Lipenga, then Minister of Information, and businessmen Mike Chilewe, Leston Mulli, and Joseph Mwanamvekha.
21. Zeze, “Democratic Constitution and Ethnic Organizations”.
22. Gilman, “Demonic or Cultural Treasure?”
23. Among the early issues the Native Associations raised were local development, the use of forced labor, racial discrimination, and education equality.
24. Phiri, History of Malawi, 45–6.
25. McCracken, A history of Malawi, 235–6.
26. Pachai, Memoires of a Malawian.
27. Kayira and Banda, “Materialism and Ethnicity,” 45.
28. McCracken, A History of Malawi, 233–4. The term ‘Anguru’ represented the inferiority complex of the Lhomwe peoples, as among other things, it undermined them for failing to speak the traditional local languages of Nyasaland. It also confirmed their ‘foreigner’ identity, as the Lhomwes were considered ‘late-comers’ to Malawi. The word Anguru is a local term that derived from a hill in Mozambique from which some of them migrated to Malawi.
29. McCracken, A History of Malawi, 313–8.
30. Mkandawire, “Ethnicity, Language, and Cultural Violence”; See also Phiri, “Dr. Banda's Cultural Legacy,” 158–64.
31. Mkandawire, “Ethnicity, Language, and Cultural Violence”.
32. Ibid., 3.
33. See Kaspin, “The Politics of Ethnicity”. Kaspin argues that among the four major rural development projects the state implemented in the 1960s and 1970s, it was the Lilongwe Land Development program at the center that had the highest level of funding.
34. Posner, “Malawi’s New Dawn”.
35. Chirwa, “Democracy, Ethnicity and Regionalism,” 63.
36. Kayira and Banda, “Materialism and Ethnicity”.
37. Interview with CHEFO1, 17 July 2016.
38. Letter of Banda to Kaunda, 28 November 1967, Dr. H. K. Banda Archive, Indiana University Library.
39. Interview with CHEFO1, 17 July 2016.
40. Ibid.
41. Muheya. “Mulli Pumps K3mil as Mutharika denies nepotism through Muhalko wa Alhomwe.”
42. Chimala, “VP donates K0.5mil to Chewa Heritage for Kulamba Ceremony.”
43. Chunga, “Minister salutes Cultural Organizations.” The Nation Online.
44. See, for example, Agbese, “Ethnic Conflicts and Hometown Associations”; Barkan, McNulty, Ayeni, “‘Hometown’ Voluntary Associations”; Woods, “Elites, Ethnicity, and ‘Home Town’ Associations”; and Page, “Slow Going”.
45. Ake, The Feasibility of Democracy in Africa, 93–4. Ake presents a good review of the primordialist and constructivist debate.
46. Brass, “Elite Groups, Symbol Manipulation,” 40.
47. Geertz, “The Integrative Revolution,” 108–13.
48. Ihonvbere, “The ‘Irrelevant’ State,” 42–60.
49. See Evans, “Primary Patriotism, Shifting Identity”; Hickey, “Toward a Progressive Politics”; Kerlin, “New Agents of Socio-economic Development”; and Nkwi, “Rethinking the Role”. These works present a good discussion of the role of ethnic associations in promoting economic development.
50. Hickey, “Toward a Progressive Politics”.
51. Woods, “Elites, Ethnicity, and ‘Home Town’ Associations”.
52. Page, “Slow Going”.
53. Makumbe, “Is there a Civil Society in Africa?” 305.
54. Orvis. “Civil Society in Africa”. See also Kasfir, “Civil Society, the state”.
55. Kasfir, “Civil Society, the State”.
56. Ibid.
57. Varsheny, “Ethnic Conflict and Civil Society”.
58. Agbese, “Ethnic Conflicts and Hometown Associations”.
59. Brass, “Elite Groups, Symbol Manipulation,” 40.
60. Evans, “Primary Patriotism, Shifting Identity”.
61. Interview with MZIHA4, 16 July 2016.
62. Robert Ngwira, “Proof that president Mutharika is surrounded by people from one region.” Malawi Voice, 31 May 2017.
63. Interviews with CHEFO1, 18 July 2016 and CHEF2, 18 July 2016.
64. Interview with CHEFO2, 18 July 2016.
65. Ibid.
66. Interview with MZIHA1, 14 July 2016.
67. Interview with MZIHA2, 16 June 2016.
68. Interview with MZIHA1, 14 July 2016.
69. Interview with MZIHA4, 16 July 2016.
70. Ibid.
71. Interview with MZIHA1, 14 July 2016.
72. Interview with MZIHA4, 16 July 2016.
73. Ibid.
74. Interview with MWA4, 15 August 2016.
75. Interviews with MWA1, 18 July 2016 and MWA4, 15 August 2016.
76. Interview with MZIHA4, 16 July 2016.
77. Ibid.
78. Interview with CHEFO1, 17 July 2016.
79. Interview with MWA1, 18 July 2016.
80. Interview with MWA1, 18 July 2016. We heard similar sentiments from our interview with MWA4 on 15 August 2016.
81. Interview with WMA3, 6 July 2016.
82. Interview with MZIHA3, 15 July 2016.
83. Interview with CHEFO1, 17 July 2016.
84. Interview with MZIHA2, 16 June 2016.
85. Interview with MWA4, 15 August 2016.
86. Interview with CHEFO1, 17 July 2016.
87. Interview with MZIHA4, 16 July 2016.
88. Interview with CHEFO2, 18 July 2016.
89. Interview with MWA1, 18 July 2016.
90. Interview with MWA3, 6 July 2016.
91. Interview with CHEFO1, 17 July 2016.
92. Ibid.
93. Interview with MZIHA1, 14 July 2016.
94. Interview with MZIHA4, 16 July 2016.
95. Interview with MZIHA3, 15 July 2016.
96. Interviews with MWA1, 18 July 2016; MWA2, 29 October 2016; and MWA4, 15 August 2016.
97. Interview with MWA1, 18 July 2016.
98. Interview with MWA2, 29 October 2016.
99. Ibid.
100. Interview with MZIHA4, 15 and 16 July 2016.
101. Chiweza, “The Ambivalent Role of Chiefs”; Englebert, “Patterns and Theories of Traditional Resurgence;” Logan, “The Roots of Resilience”; and Muriaas, “Local Perspectives.”