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ABSTRACT
Since the triple crises of food, fuel and finance of 2007/8, investments in agricultural growth corridors have taken centre-stage in government, donor and private sector initiatives. This article examines the politics of the multi-billion dollar development of the Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania (SAGCOT). The corridor’s proponents aim to create an environment in which agribusiness will operate alongside smallholders to improve food security and environmental sustainability, while reducing rural poverty. Based on three case studies, comprising one of a small-scale dairy company and two large-scale sugar companies, all operating with smallholders, this paper interrogates the political dynamics that shape the implementation of SAGCOT on the ground; in particular, the multiple contestations among bureaucrats, investors and smallholders over access to land and other resources, and contending visions for agricultural commercialisation. Despite the widespread support it received from government, donors and investors, the paper argues that SAGCOT’s grand modernist vision of the corridor, centred on the promotion of large-scale estates, has unravelled through contestations and negotiations on the ground.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Peter Kitua and Happiness Joseph for their research assistance and to Ian Scoones, Ngala Chome, Ruth Hall, Jeremy Lind, Rebecca Pointer, Euclides Gonçalves and two anonymous reviewers for their critical comments and insights on the earlier drafts of this article. I am thankful to John Hall for creating the maps. The Agricultural Policy Research in Africa programme of the Future Agricultures Consortium supported by the Department for International Deveopment, UK and based at the Institute for Development Studies, University of Sussex, United Kingdom, funded the research work for this article.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Smalley, “Agricultural growth Corridors”; Gálvez Nogales and Webber, Territorial tools; Dannenberg et al., “Spaces for Integration”.
2 Gálvez Nogales and Webber, Territorial tools; Dannenberg et al., “Spaces for Integration”.
3 See New Alliance Progress Report, http://new-alliance.org/sites/default/files/resources/072814_NewAlliance_FinalC_508.pdf [Accessed 13 February 2019].
4 Sulle, “Land grabbing”; Sulle and Hall, “Reframing the New Alliance”.
5 Approved in 2003 by heads of states and governments, CAADP’s main objective is to ensure each African country allocates at least 10% of its total budget to agriculture.
6 See Scott, Seeing Like a State.
7 Sulle, “Land Grabbing”; Chinsinga and Chasukwa, The Great Belt Initiative; Hall, “Land Grabbing in Southern Africa”.
8 Hall et al “Resistance, Acquiescence or Incorporation?”, McAdam et al., Dynamics of Contention; Hickey, “The Politics of Staying Poor”.
9 Bernstein, Class Dynamics of Agrarian Change, 22.
10 See Hansen and Stepputat, States of Imagination; Tsing, An Ethnography of Global Connection.
11 Sulle, “Land Grabbing”; Sulle and Smalley, The Role of the State; Massimba et al., Consultancy Services.
12 See Smalley, “Agricultural growth Corridors”.
13 Scott, Seeing Like a State.
14 Coulson, Political Economy of Tanzania.
15 Bergius, “Expanding the Corporate”; Twomey et al., “Impact of Large-scale”.
16 Scott, Seeing Like a State; Li, “Beyond ‘the state’ and Failed Schemes”.
17 URT, Development Vision 2025; Khalifa Said and Ephrahim Bahemu, “President Magufuli out to leave mega projects legacy”, The Citizen, 6 November 2018, https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/News/President-Magufuli-out-to-leave-mega-projects-legacy/1840340-4838814-3kiq94z/index.html [Accessed 2 February 2019].
18 Scott, Seeing Like a State; Li, “Beyond ‘the state’ and Failed Schemes”.
19 SAGCOT Investment Partnership Program: Opportunities for Investors in the Sugar Sector, 2012. www.sagcot.com.
20 Paul and Steinbrecher, “African Agricultural growth Corridor”.
21 Paul and Steinbrecher, “African Agricultural growth Corridor”; Laltaika, “Business and Human Rights”.
22 See http://www.sagcot.com/ [Accessed 11 December 2018].
23 Bergius, “Expanding the Corporate Food Regime”.
24 Village land means land within the boundaries of a village registered in accordance with the Local Government Act of 1982 administered through Village Land Act No 5 of 1999.
25 See https://www.tanzaniainvest.com/industrialisation [Accessed 2 February 2019]; Said and Bahemu, “President Magufuli”, op. cit.
26 Rosemary Mirondo, “Tanzania Government Cancels Sh100bn Sagcot Scheme.” The Citizen May 17, 2019, https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/News/Tanzania-government-cancels-Sh100bn-Sagcot-scheme/1840340-5119582-qvi1siz/index.html; Africa Confidential, “Farming Gamble Fails.” 22 March 2019. https://www.africa-confidential.com/article/id/12602/Farming_gamble_fails
27 SAGCOT Catalytic Trust Fund, “Govt to Redraft Stalled SAGCOT Scheme.” July 19, 2019, https://sagcotctf.co.tz/2019/07/19/govt-to-redraft-stalled-sagcot-scheme-2/ [Accessed 21 January 2020].
28 Brunnermeier, “Deciphering the liquidity”
29 Bergius et al., “Green economy”; Ouma, “From Financialization to Operations of Capital”
30 Browne, “The History and Politics”.
31 See Gonçalves, “Beira and Nacala”.
32 See AgDevCo and Prorustica, cited in Maganga et al., “Dispossession through Formalization”, 16.
33 Sulle, “Biofuels Boom and Bust”; Vermeulen and Cotula; Making the Most of Agricultural Investment.
34 Twomey et al., “Impacts of large-scale”; Massay and Kassile ‘Land-based Investments’; Belair, “Land Investments in Tanzania”
35 Hall, “The Next Great Trek”; Cotula and Leonard, Alternatives to Land Grabbing.
36 Sulle, “Land Grabbing”.
37 URT, National Agriculture Policy, 8.
38 Maganga et al., “Dispossession through Formalization”.
39 See http://sagcot.co.tz/index.php/sagcot-investment-project/#1532685674247-2ea69550-8ffc [Accessed 15 November 2018].
40 SAGCOT. “Southern Agricultural Corridor: Investment Blueprint.” 2011. Retrieved at: http://www.sagcot.com/uploads/media/Invest-Blueprint-SAGCOT_High_res.pdf.
41 Ibid.
42 See http://www.sagcot.com/newsdetails/article//catalytic-trust-fund-funding-opportunity-advertisement-call-for-business-concept-proposals/ [Accessed 4 August 2017].
43 See West and Haug. “Polarised Narratives and Complex Realities”; World Bank, “New Project to Link Farmers to Agribusiness in Tanzania.” Press Release, March 10, 2016, http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2016/03/10/new-project-to-link-farmers-to-agribusiness-in-tanzania [Accessed 5 August 2017].
44 Africa Confidential, “Farming Gamble Fails”, op. cit.
45 Dannenberg et al, “Spaces for Integration”.
46 SAGCOT, “Southern Agricultural Corridor,” 17.
47 Hall et al., “Resistance, acquiescence or incorporation?” McAdam et al., Dynamics of Contention; Hickey, “The Politics of Staying Poor”.
48 SAGCOT Investment Partnership, 17; Smalley et al., “The Role of the State”.
49 Discussion with SAGCOT official, Dar Es Salaam, 6 May 2018.
50 URT, Development Vision; Nshala and Locke, “A proposed Land for Equity Scheme”.
51 Baum, “Land use in Kilombero Valley”; Smalley and Sulle, “The State and Foreign Capital”.
52 See https://www.illovosugarafrica.com/About-us/Group-Overview/Structure [Accessed 2 February 2019].
53 Illovo Sugar Ltd, “Integrated Report 2013.” www.illovosugar.co.za/Financial/Annual_Reports/Annual_Report2013.aspx [Accessed 20 September 2018].
54 Ibid.
55 Personal communication with the cane growers association official, 1 February 2019.
56 see Sprenger, Sugarcane Outgrowers; Sulle and Smalley, “The State and Foreign Capital”.
57 Focus group discussion, members of Msolwa outgrowers association, 14 May 2018.
58 Sulle and Smalley, “The State and Foreign Capital”.
59 see Sulle and Smalley, “The State and Foreign Capital”; Sulle, “Social Differentiation”.
60 Dancer and Sulle, “Gender Implications”; Hall et al., “Plantations, Outgrowers and Commercial Farming in Africa”.
61 Sulle and Smalley, “The State and Foreign Capital”.
62 Ibid; Dancer and Sulle, Gender Implications.
63 Interview, a mother of three children, Msolwa Ujamaa Village, 15 May 2018.
64 Sulle and Smalley, “The State and Foreign Capital”; Nombo, “Sweet Cane, Bitter Realities”; Dancer and Sulle, Gender Implications.
65 Dancer and Sulle, Gender Implications.
66 Ibid.
67 Massimba et al., Consultancy Services; Sulle, “Social Differentiation”.
68 Baum, “Land use in Kilombero Valley”;
69 Chachage, “Kilombero Sugar”; Locher and Sulle, “Challenges and Methodological Flaws”.
70 Mbilinyi and Semkafu, “Gender and Employment”; Sulle and Smalley, “The State and Foreign Capital”
71 Bergius, “Expanding the Corporate Food Regime”
72 Interview with Sugar Board of Tanzania official, Dar Es Salaam, 19 October 2017.
73 Ibid.
74 Mwananchi Newspaper, “Wabunge wa upinzani wamwaga kero zao mbele ya Magufuli”, 5 May 2018.
75 Ibid.
76 Interview with land rights NGO representative, Dar Es Salaam, 10 May 2018.
77 See Sulle and Smalley, “The State and Foreign Capital”.
78 See Ibid.
79 Milgoom, “Policy Processes of a Land Grab”; Hall et al., “Resistance, Acquiescence or Incorporation?”
80 Sulle and Smalley, “The State and Foreign Capital”.
81 The Guardian, “Mkulazi sugar project to end country’s sugar deficit – minister”, 10 December 2018. https://www.ippmedia.com/en/news/mkulazi-sugar-project-end-country%E2%80%99s-sugar-deficit-minister [Accessed 2 January 2019].
82 Institute for Resource Assessment (University of Dar es Salaam), “Environmental and social impact assessment report for the proposed Mkulazi sugar farming and processing factory, Morogoro Rural District, Morogoro Region, Tanzania”. Unpublished, 12 October 2017.
83 Ibid.
84 Interview, Mkulazi Ward Executive Officer, Mkulazi 7 September 2018.
85 Ibid.
86 In Tanzania a ward is an administrative unit formed by more than one village, while a village itself is formed by more than one subvillage.
87 Mwami and Kamata, Land Grabbing in a Post-Investment Period.
88 Focus group discussion, residents in Kizada subvillage, 7 September 2018.
89 Interview, former official, Tanzania Sugarcane Growers Association, Mikumi, 14 May 2018.
90 Chachage and Mbunda, The state of the then NAFCO.
91 Interview with pastoralist NGO representative, Morogoro, 14 May 2018.
92 Ibid.
93 Interview, district land official, Mvomero District, 27 July 2018.
94 Interview, district livestock officer, Mvomero District, 30 July 2018.
95 Interview with pastoralist NGO representative, Morogoro, 14 May 2018.
96 Ibid.
97 Focus group discussion, residents in Kizada subvillage, 7 September 2018.
98 Ibid.
99 Interview, company’s manager, Njombe, 31 August 2018.
100 Ibid.
101 Ibid.
102 Interview, NJOLIFA member, Njombe, 31 August 2018.
103 Interview, company’s manager, Njombe, 31 August 2018.
104 Ibid.
105 Ibid.
106 Interview, NJOLIFA member, Njombe, 31 August 2019.
107 Ibid.
108 Ibid.
109 Interview, company’s manager, Njombe, 31 August 2018.
110 Tanzania Daily News, “Tanzania: CTI Says Too Many Regulatory Bodies Are Counterproductive.” May 30, 2016. https://allafrica.com/stories/201605310607.html [Accessed 12 March 2019].
111 Interview Executive Ward Office, Mkulazi, 31 August 2018.
112 Discussion with SAGCOT official, Dar Es Salaam, 06 May 2018.
113 Policy Forum. “Position Statement Budget 2016/07.” http://www.policyforum-tz.org/position-statement-budget-20162017 [Accessed 14 September 2018].
114 URT, Development Vision 2025.
115 The Citizen Newspaper, “Unanswered Questions as BRN Disbanded.” 28 June 2017. https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/News/Unanswered-questions-as-BRN-disbanded/1840340-3990386-11n2ibbz/index.html [Accessed 21 January 2020].
116 Interview with SAGCOT staff, Masaki, 11 August 2017.
117 Boaudreax, “An Assessment of Concerns Related to Land Tenure”.
118 Dancer and Sulle, “Gender implications”.
119 Shivji, Accumulation in an African Periphery
120 Ferguson, “Seeing Like an Oil Company”.
121 Sprenger, Sugarcane Outgrowers.
122 Sulle, “Land Grabbing”; Hall “Land Grabbing in Southern Africa”.
123 Hall et al “Resistance, acquiescence or incorporation?”.
124 Jame Scott, Seeing Like a State.
125 Li, “Beyond “The State” Failed Schemes”.