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ABSTRACT
Participatory Budgeting (PB) experiments in municipalities across the world have yielded varied results as there are municipalities. The Kenyan experience of participatory experiments has not fared any better. Following the 2013 elections, which initiated county governments in line with the 2010 constitution, Makueni County emerged as a unique case for study having experimented with its very own participatory budgeting mechanism. The qualitative study reported in this article examined how Makueni’s PB framework is designed and implemented. The emerging outcomes of institutional design and implementation are then contextualised to Makueni’s socio-political and cultural setting. The study discusses two sets of PB outcomes: outcomes on public participation (questions of inclusion, exclusion and quality of participation in PB) and outcomes of PB (concerned with the end-line developmental products of the PB process). The purpose of this article is to recentre the often-ignored considerations on the socio-political and cultural in PB experiments in Kenya’s devolved governance structures and beyond.
Acknowledgements
This paper would not have been possible without assistance from the Directorate of Public Participation in Makueni County especially in facilitating access to study sites and respondents. We would like to especially thank Prof. Winnie Mitullah, senior researcher at the Institute for Development Studies, University of Nairobi, for her insights on federalism in Kenya in the course of the study.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Santos, “Participatory Budgeting in Porto Alegre.”
2 Nelson Dias, 25 Years of Participatory Budgeting Worldwide.
3 Oliveira, “Dynamics of the Diffusion of the Participatory Budget”; Santos, “Participatory Budgeting in Porto Alegre.”
4 Rutten, Distirct Focus Policy for Rural Development in Kenya; Barkan and Chege, “Decentralising the State.”
5 Article 174 and Article 201(a) of the Constitution mandates County governments to promote citizen participation in decision-making.
6 The Public Finance Act 2012’s Article 125 on County government budget process requires the budget process to be open for public participation; Article 137 on the Establishment of County Budget and Economic Forum (CBEF), requires County governments to convene participatory and inclusive county budget consultation fora.
7 See Lakin, “Toward Public Participation in the County Budget Process in Kenya.”
8 See Muasya, “Makueni’s Public Participation Model.”.
9 Wampler, “Guide to Participatory Budgeting”; Goldfrank, “Politics of Deepening Local Democracy”; Cabannes, “A Significant Contribution to Participatory Democracy.”
10 Burton, “Conceptual, Theoretical and Practical Issues.”
11 See note 1 above
12 World Bank, “Toward a More Inclusive and Effective Participatory Budget.”
13 Some neo-liberal interpretations of public participation have included such ideas as ‘do-it-yourself’, ‘self-help’ and ‘cost-sharing’ with the poor.
14 Alejandro Leal, “Participation.”
15 See note 11 above.
16 Kapiriri, Norheim, and Heggenhougen, “Public Participation in Health Planning and Priority Setting.”
17 Annette Akinyi, “Inclusive and Effective Citizen Engagement.”
18 Cabannes, “Conceptual Framework and Analysis of Its Contribution.”
19 Arnstein, “A Ladder of Citizen Participation.”
20 See Burns, Hambleton, and Hoggett, “Citizen Participation: Theory and Practice.”
21 Fung, “Varieties of Participation.”
22 See Moynihan, “Citizen Participation in Budgeting: Prospects for Developing Countries.”
23 Cornwall, “Unpacking ‘Participation’.”
24 Barnes et al., “Constituting ‘the Public’.”
25 Gaventa, “Towards Participatory Governance.”
26 See GoMC, “Public Participation Framework.”
27 Burton, “Conceptual, Theoretical and Practical Issues.”
28 Key Informant Interview (KII F, September 2017).
29 Key Informant Interview (KII E, September 2017).
30 Key Informant Interviews (KII H & J, September 2017), Interview with Ward Administrator in Mavindini (Respondent 12, August 2017).
31 See TJRC Kenya, “Public Hearing Transcripts – Eastern – Machakos – RTJRC24.11 (Municipal Council of Machakos Social Hall).”
32 Key Informant Interview (KII H, September 2017).
33 Key Informant Interview (KII G, September 2017), Interview with Ward Administrator Kathonzweni Ward (Respondent 10, September 2017), Interview with County DC Member in Wote Market (Respondent 9, September, 2017).
34 Interviews with various DC members and Ward Administrators (Respondent 1 & 6, August 2017; Respondent 10 & 12, September 2017).
35 Key Informant Interview (KII E, September 2017).
36 Key Informant Interviews (KII E, F & H, September 2017), Interview with Ward Administrator in Kanthonzweni (Respondent 10, September 2017).
37 Wampler, Participatory Budgeting in Brazil.
38 Interview with Ward Administrator in Mavindini (Respondent 12, August 2017); Key Informant Interview (KII J, September, 2017).
39 Interview with grassroots community organiser and former Ward Public Participation Officer (Respondent 11, September 2017).
40 This phrase is loosely adopted from William Easterly’s (2014) book, which is a critic of the technification of the development sector.
41 Key Informant Interview (KII G, September 2017).
42 Key Informant Interview (KII E, September 2017).
43 Sheely, “Mobilization, Participatory Planning Institutions, and Elite Capture.”
44 Key Informant Interview (KII L, September 2017).
45 Cornwall, “Introduction: New Democratic Spaces?.”
46 Interview with grassroots community organiser and former Ward Public Participation Officer (Respondent 11, September 2017).
47 KANU or the Kenya African National Union is a political party in Kenya that ruled Kenya from its independence in 1963 to 2002. It is often associated with despotic governance during the said time.
48 Key Informant Interview (KII H, September 2017) and See Office of the Controller of Budget 2014, 2015 and 2016 reports.
49 See Santos, “Participatory Budgeting in Porto Alegre”; and Wampler, “Participatory Budgeting in Brazil.”.
50 Interview with citizen Ward DC member in Kivandini (Respondent 7, August, 2017).
51 Barnes et al., “Constituting ‘the Public’.”
52 Ibid.
53 Interview with Ward Administrator Kathonzweni Ward (Respondent 10, September 2017).
54 Interview with Ward Administrator, Kitise/Kithuki (Respondent 4, August, 2017).
55 Interview with citizen Sub DC member in Kitise/Kithuki (Respondent 2, August, 2017).
56 Interview with citizen Ward DC member in Kivandini (Respondent 7, August 2017).
57 Interview with citizen Ward DC member in Kivandini (Respondent 7, August 2017), Interview with Ward Administrator in Kitise (Respondent 4, August, 2017).
58 Interview with aide to an MCA-elect in Kathonzweni (Respondent 5, August, 2017).
59 Interview with Ward Administrator Kathonzweni Ward (Respondent 10, September 2017).
60 Interview with aide to an MCA-elect in Kathonzweni (Respondent 5, August, 2017).
61 Reserves, these are the distinctly rural areas of the Sub County.
62 Interview with citizen Ward DC member in Kivandini (Respondent 7, August, 2017).
63 Interview with County DC Member in Wote Market (Respondent 9, September, 2017).
64 Interview with citizen Sub Ward DC member in Kitise (Respondent 2, August 2017).
65 Interview with Ward DC Member (Respondent 8, August 2017).
66 See note 24 above.
67 Martin, “‘Ordinary People Only’.”
68 Key Informant Interview (KII F, September 2017).
69 Key Informant Interviews (KII C, August 2017; KII E, September 2017).
70 Key Informant A, August 2015, and Respondent 2, August 2017.
71 Interview with citizen Ward DC member (Respondent 6, August 2017).
72 Interview with citizen Ward DC member (Respondent 6, August 2017).
73 Interview with Ward DC Member (Respondent 8, August 2017).
74 Interview with citizen Ward DC member in Kivandini (Respondent 7, August, 2017).
75 Interview with citizen Sub Ward DC member in Kitise (Respondent 2, August 2017); ‘watu wa rika’ is a Swahili expression, which can loosely be translated to mean ‘mature individuals’ or elders.
76 Interview with Respondent in Kitikyumu (Respondent 6, August 2017).
77 Interview with County DC Member in Wote Market (Respondent 9, September, 2017).
78 Interview with grassroots community organiser and former Ward Public Participation Officer (Respondent 11, September 2017).
79 Interview with Ward DC member in Kitikyumu (Respondent 6, August 2017).
80 See Lim, “Networks, Mobilization, and Citizen Participation in Politics.”
81 McPherson, Smith-Lovin, and Cook, “Birds of a Feather.”
82 Mutz, Hearing the Other Side.
83 Homophily describes the tendency of individuals to associate and interact with people like themselves. Studies on social networks have shown that social networks are organised around the interactions of ‘similar’ people.
84 Interview with grassroots community organiser and former Ward Public Participation Officer (Respondent 11, September 2017).
85 Key Informant Interview (KII B, August 2017).
86 Wampler, Participatory Budgeting in Brazil.
87 Lakin, “Devolution: A Dream Deferred?”
88 Key Informant Interviews (KII G & H, September 2017); Interview with grassroots community organizer and former Ward Public Participation Officer (Respondent 11, September 2017).
89 Key Informant Interview (KII H, September 2017).
90 Key Informant Interview (KII H, September 2017), Interviews with citizen DC members (Respondent 7, August, 2017; Respondent 11, September 2017).
91 Interview with grassroots community organiser and former Ward Public Participation Officer (Respondent 11, September 2017).
92 Interview with County DC Member in Wote Market (Respondent 9, September, 2017).
93 Interview with citizen Ward DC member in Kivandini (Respondent 7, August, 2017).
94 See note 28 above.
95 Arnstein, “A Ladder of Citizen Participation.”