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ABSTRACT
The ‘youth bulge’ that has been observed across much of the Global South has resulted in the drawing of young people, especially young men, as a threat to social order. In Kenya, the ‘spectre of youth radicalization’ is particularly prevalent, and young Somali males have been singled out as a volatile youth demographic. While explanations for the correlation between political instability and violence and young men within youth bulge theory tends to focus on economic, political and social structures, this article uses the Kenyan case to emphasise the historical dimensions of the state construction of problematic Somali youth.
Acknowledgments
My thanks to Luke Melchiore, Wangui Kimari and Jacob Rasmussen for inviting me to participate in this special collection. As ever, I am deeply indebted to Hassan Kochore.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 For examples, see Kaplan, “Coming Anarchy”; Huntington, Clash ; Hudson and den Boer, “Bare Branches.”
2 Goldstone, Kaufmann, and Duffy Toft (eds.), Political Demography.
3 Though it is likely that the 2019 census underrepresents the true number. Weitzberg, “Census,” 410.
4 For example, see Hudson and den Boer, “Bare Branches”; Urdal, “Clash of Generations.”
5 Amble and Meleagrou-Hitchens, “Jihadist Radicalization,” 530; Anderson and McKnight, “Understanding Al-Shabaab,” 543.
6 Anderson and Mcknight, “Understanding Al-Shabaab,” 546; Lind, Mutahi and Oosterom, “Killing a Mosquito,” 129.
7 Bruzzone, “Kenya's Security Crackdown.”
8 Nation Team, “Police Hold Hundreds in Kasarani Stadium,” Daily Nation, 7 April 2014.
9 Lind, Mutahi, and Oosterom, “Killing a Mosquito,” 119.
10 Stoler, Duress, 20.
11 Botha, “Political socialization,” 916; Anderson and McKnight, “Understanding Al-Shabaab,” 546.
12 White, Miescher, and Cohen, African Words.
13 Waller, “Rebellious Youth,” 78–9.
14 See Fourchard, “Juvenile Delinquency.”
15 Merry, “Criminalization.”
16 Schneider and Schneider, “Anthropology of Crime,” 353.
17 Merry, “Criminalization,” 16, 21.
18 Anderson, “Remembering Wagalla,” 660–1.
19 For examples, see Kenya National Archive (KNA), Nairobi, DC/WAJ 2/9/1, F. Dixey, ‘Hydrographical survey of the Northern Frontier District’, 1944, 6; KNA PC/NFD 5/1/8, ‘Post-war five-year development plan, Northern Frontier District’, 1944, 3, 9, 21; Schlee, “Territorializing ethnicity”; Schlee with Shongolo, Islam and Ethnicity, 2.
20 See Whittaker, “Frontier Security.”
21 NA CO 533/496/1, Department of Agriculture, The Evils of Soil Erosion and Ways of Preserving the Land (Nairobi, 1938).
22 For examples, see KNA PC/GRSSA 3/1/10, Mandera District Monthly Report, April 1956; KNA PC/GRSSA 3/1/12, Wajir District Monthly Report, March 1959; Whittaker, “Frontier Security,” 391–3.
23 For an example see KNA PC/GRSSA 2/13/16, District Commissioner Wajir to Provincial Commissioner Northern Province, 27 December 1948.
24 For detail see KNA, Northern Province Annual Reports, 1935–1960.
25 KNA DC/GRSSA 18/13, Mandera District Monthly Report, May 1954.
26 KNA PC/NFD 4/1/2, Political Records Book, Wajir District.
27 Merry, “Criminalization,” 16.
28 Reid, Shallow Graves, 53.
29 Forbes-Watson, Shifta!, 22–3.
30 KNA PC/NFD 1/1/9, Northern Province Annual Report, 1947; NA FCO 141/6781, ‘Somali Youth League Activity in Kenya. Review of Period 1.1.59-31.7.59.
31 KNA PC/NFD 1/1/9, Northern Province Annual Report, 1948.
32 Ibid.
33 KNA PC/NFD 1/1/9, Northern Province Annual Report, 1948, Appendix A.
34 Crummey, “The Great Beast,” 7.
35 Burton and Jennings, “Emperor's New Clothes,” 11.
36 Whittaker, Insurgency and Counterinsurgency, 89–129.
37 Hansard, Republic of Kenya, House of Representatives Official Report Volume I, 23 July-29 November 1963 (28 November 1963), Cols. 2400–2428.
38 Hansard, Republic of Kenya, House of Representatives Official Report Volume II, 13 December 1963–18 March 1964 (Nairobi, 31 December 1963), Cols. 8–47.
39 Hansard, Republic of Kenya, House of Representative Official Report Volume II, 13 December 1963–18 March 1964 (Nairobi, 26 February 1964), Cols. 142–184.
40 Whittaker, Insurgency and Counterinsurgency, 78–86.
41 Waller, “Rebellious Youth,” 88.
42 Whittaker, Insurgency and Counterinsurgency, 57–62; Interview by author with Iftin Hussein, December 15, 2008.
43 Interview by author with Farah Mohamed, December 23, 2008.
44 Crummey, “The Great Beast,” 1.
45 Weitzberg, We Do Not, 127.
46 Hansard, Republic of Kenya, House of Representatives Official Report Volume XII Fifth Session, 28 May-28 June 1967 (Nairobi, 13 June 1967|), Cols. 931–940.
47 Hansard, Republic of Kenya, House of Representative Official Report Volume II, 13 December 1963–18 March 1964 (Nairobi, 26 February 1964), Cols. 142–184.
48 Burton and Jennings, “Emperor's New Clothes,” 9.
49 Rolandsen and Leonardi, “Discourses of violence.”
50 Ibid., 611.
51 Whittaker, Insurgency and Counterinsurgency, 108–14.
52 See Markakis, Ethiopia.
53 Hansard, Republic of Kenya, House of Representatives Volume X Part II Forth Session, 1 November–22 December 1966 (Nairobi, 1966), cols. 1720–1752; KNA PC/GRSSA 3/21/23, Mandera District Annual Report, 1967.
54 KNA PC/GRSSA 3/21/23, Mandera District Annual Report, 1967; KNA SK 3/1, Proposed Post-Emergency Development Plan for Mandera, 7 February 1968.
55 Whittaker, Insurgency and Counterinsurgency, 120.
56 KNA AE 19/34, Ministry of Economic Planning and Development, ‘Development in North Eastern Province, and Isiolo and Marsabit Districts of Eastern Province’, 1967.
57 KNA DC/ISO 4/7/4, Telegram A.161/B/428/67, 28 March 1967.
58 Interviews by author with Tari Bule and Farhia Mohamed, October 5, 2008; Interview by author with Fatuma Gabow, December 16, 2008.
59 Interview with Farhia Mohamed.
60 TJRC, Final Report vol 2A, 189.
61 Fisher and Anderson, “Authoritarianism,” 131; Hagmann and Reyntjens, Aid and Authoritarianism.
62 For critics of the approach see Li, Will to Improve, 1; Fisher and Anderson, “Authoritarianism,” 131; Hagmann, Stabilization, 19, 21. For evidence of the success of this approach see Hassan Kochore, “How Better Roads Can Help in the War on Terror,” Standard Digital, 3 January 2020. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001355210/how-better-roads-can-help-in-war-on-terrorism
63 KNA BB/1/98, Abdi Rashid Khalif to Provincial Commissioner Northern Province, 10 March 1961; NA FCO 141/6657, NPPPP Petition to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1961; KNA PC/GRSSA 3/1/69, NPPPP Chairman to Provincial Commissioner Northern Province, 2 August 1963.
64 NA, FCO 141/7130, Governor of Kenya to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 19 September 1963; NA CO 822/3055, Government Paper, Somali Activity in the NER. Tabulation of Recent Trends and Events.
65 Interview by author with Adan Banchalle, October 5, 2008.
66 Interview by author with Ali Wario, December 23, 2008.
67 Ibid.
68 Amble and Meleagrou-Hitchens, “Jihadist Radicalization,” 525, 530; Botha, “Political Socialization,” 898–900; Anderson and McKnight, “Understanding Al-Shabaab,” 538, 542.
69 Lind, Mutahi and Oosterom, “Killing a Mosquito,” 128–9.
70 Anderson and McKnight, “Understanding Al-Shabaab,” 543.
71 Ibid., 543.
72 Lind, Mutahi and Oosterom, “Killing a Mosquito,” 129; Anderson and McKnight, “Understanding Al-Shabaab,” 546.
73 Herbst, States and Power, 170; Khadiagala, “Boundaries,” 273–4; Anderson, “Remembering Wagalla,” 661.
74 Khadiagala, “Boundaries,” 275; Mburu, “Contemporary Banditry,” 89–107, 104. For a more ambiguous relationship between small arms proliferation and cattle raiding see, Eaton, “Business of Peace.”
75 For examples see KNA, Newspaper Cuttings on “Shifta” in North Eastern Province, March 1977-April 1979; Newspaper Cuttings on “Shifta” in North Eastern Province, January 1981-October 1982.
76 Anderson, “Remembering Wagalla,” 660.
77 Ibid., 661.
78 Ibid., 659.
79 Ibid., 658.
80 Branch, Kenya, 169.
81 See Carrier, Little Mogadishu.
82 GoK, Vision 2030, 8.
83 Scharrer, “Ambiguous Citizens.”
84 KNA, Newspaper Cuttings on “Shifta” in North Eastern Province, March 1977–April 1979, The Standard, 4 August 1977.
85 For example see Clunan and Trinkunas, Ungoverned Spaces.
86 For example, see Clunan and Trinkunas, Ungoverned Spaces.
87 Metelits, Security in Africa, 6–7.
88 UNHCR, “Figures at a Glance.”
89 Cyrus Ombati, “Camels Join Police in New Border Patrol Unit,” Standard Digital. 5 August 2018. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001290845/camels-join-police-in-new-border-patrol-unit [Accessed 6 August 2018].
90 HRW, “Kenya.”
91 Lind, Mutahi and Oosterom, “Killing a Mosquito,” 129.
92 TJRC, Final Report vol 2A, 117.
93 Ibid.
94 Amnesty International, “Kenya.”
95 Anderson and McKnight, “Understanding Al-Shabaab,” 542, 546; Amble and Meleagrou-Hitchens, “Jihadist Radicalization,” 530.
96 Botha, “Political Socialization,” 900.
97 Crummey, “The Great Beast,” 1.
98 Interview by author with Gufu Arero, October 6, 2008.
99 Interview with Ali Wario.
100 For example, in the recent Rhodes Must Fall campaign. Boren, Student Resistance.