https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0104-3374
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ABSTRACT
This work analyses the politics of anticipation and ensuing fears, tensions and conflicts in relation to Kenya’s Lamu Port-South Sudan-Ethiopia Transport (LAPSSET) Corridor which is to pass through several previously marginalized counties in the north of the country. Isiolo county, in the centre of Kenya is home to several different ethnic groups of whom some are perceived to be better informed about LAPSSET than others, or have certain advantages in terms of claims to indigeneity, ethno-political dominance, land tenure security or access to markets, which help them to position themselves accordingly. This anticipatory positioning – actions people take in anticipation of the future – is raising fears and heightening the claiming of land and ethnic boundary-making, leading to heightened tensions and exacerbating existing conflicts of which three specific cases are considered. We show how ethno-political divides on a national and regional level become effective at the local and county level, but at the same time, how the positioning of actors in anticipation of future investments impacts on ethnic boundary-making, as division lines are re-enacted and redrawn.
Acknowledgments
This work was first presented in 2019 at the European Conference on African Studies in Edinburgh, UK. Thanks to our research assistants, participants and helpful officials and to the several reviewers for their very useful comments. Thanks also to our driver Laban who got us safely through difficult conditions with a smile, and to Tessa Mkutu for her editing expertise.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Interview, a peace ambassador, Isiolo Town, 6 September 2018.
2 LAPSSET Corridor Development Authority, “Brief on LAPSSET” and Browne, LAPSSET.
3 Zelezer, “Economic Policy and Performance.”
4 Government of Kenya, “Vision 2030.”
5 LAPSSET Corridor Development Authority, “Investment prospectus,” 5.
6 Scott, “Seeing Like a State.”
7 Bovensiepen and Meitzner Yoder, “Introduction: The Political Dynamics”; Filer and Le Meur “Large-Scale Mines”; and Unruh et al., “Linkages.”
8 Behrends, “Fighting for Oil”; Greiner, “Land-Use Change”; and Kinyera and Doevenspeck, “Imagined Futures.”
9 Chome, “Land, Livelihoods and Belonging”; Chome et al., “Demonstration Fields”; and Greiner “Land-Use Change.”
10 Barry, “Material Politics,” 7; Behrends, “Fighting for Oil”; and Kinyera and Doevenspeck, “Imagined Futures.”
11 Mkutu and Mboru, Rapid Assessment.
12 Cormack, “Pastoralist Heritage.”
13 Elliot, “Planning, Property and Plots”; and Elliot, “Anticipating Plots.”
14 Pavitt, Kenya: The First Explorers.
15 Jenkins, “Ethnicity.”
16 Lynch, “Negotiating Ethnicity.”
17 Mkutu et al., Securing the Counties.
18 Carrier and Kochore, “Navigating Ethnicity”; Schlee and Shongolo, Pastoralism and Politics; and Greiner “Land-Use Change.”
19 Jenkins “Ethnicity.”
20 Lonsdale “Soil,” 308.
21 Ibid., 311.
22 Boye and Kaarhus, “Competing Claims”; Schlee and Shongolo, Pastoralism and Politics; and Arero, “Coming to Kenya,” 295–8.
23 Greiner, “Land-Use Change,” 539–40.
24 Whittaker, “The Socioeconomic Dynamics”; and Whittaker, “Legacies of Empire.”
25 Isiolo County Government, “County Integrated Development Plan.”
26 Some Somali clans were earlier considered Boran or self-identified as Boran. Schlee, “Brothers of Boran,”; cf. Schlee “Changing Alliances.”
27 Boye and Kaarhus, “Competing Claims”; and Arero, “Coming to Kenya,” 293.
28 Boye and Kaarhus, “Competing Claims.”
29 Mkutu and Mboru, Rapid Assessment.
30 Mkutu, “Pastoralists, Politics.”
31 Ruto et al., “Conflict Dynamics in Isiolo.”
32 Ibid.; Cox, “Ethnic Violence”; and Sharamo, “The Politics.”
33 Tsing, “Natural Resources and Capitalist Frontiers,” 5100.
34 Cross, “Dream Zones,” 9.
35 Enns and Bersaglio, “On the Coloniality.”
36 Schetter, “Ungoverned Territories.”
37 Harrison and Mdee, “Entrepreneurs”; Mosley and Watson “Frontier Transformations.”
38 Anderson, “Preemption”; Groves, “Emptying the Future”; and Granjou et al., “Politics of Anticipation.”
39 Cross, “Dream Zones,” 9.
40 Haines, “Imagining the Highway,” 406.
41 Hughes and Rogei, “Feeling the Heat.”
42 Greiner, “Land-Use Change,” 541.
43 Government of Kenya, Sessional Paper No. 8.
44 On the different local perspectives on the Isiolo-Moyale road see Kochore, “The Road to Kenya.”
45 See Natural Justice, “LAPSSET Land Acquisition Map.” https://naturaljustice.org/natural-justice-lapsset-land-acquisition-map/
46 Mkutu, “LAPSSET Corridor Developments.”
47 Gitonga Marete, “Building Plans for Sh85bn Isiolo-Mandera Road on the Home Stretch.” Business Daily, February 5, 2020. https://www.businessdailyafrica.com/corporate/shipping/Building-plans-for-Sh85bn-Isiolo-Mandera-road-/4003122-5443978-85r75wz/index.html
48 Owino, “The Implications.”
49 Kanyinga, “Devolution.”
50 Owino, “The Implications.”
51 Group interview with journalists, Isiolo Town, 11 May 2017.
52 Lind et al., “The Politics of Land,” 3.
53 Elliot, “Town Making.”
54 Ibid.; and Elliot, Anticipating Plots.
55 Elliot, Anticipating Plots; and Elliot “Town Making,” 51.
56 Peace Committee Member, Isiolo, 10 May 2017.
57 Interview, LAPSSET Corridor Development Authority official 19 February 2019.
59 Kenya Gazette Supplement No. 1, 10 January 2020 “The Land Adjudication Act” (Application)(Amendment) Order
60 Waweru Wairimu, “Turkana Community in Isiolo Wants Land Adjudication Halted.” Daily Nation, January 7, 2020. https://www.nation.co.ke/counties/isiolo/Locals-oppose-Isiolo-land-adjudication/1183266-5409246-d0y894/index.html; Environment and Land Court at Meru. Petition No 5 of 2019; and High Court of Kenya at Meru. Petition No. 7 of 2018.
61 Interview, land adjudication office, 17 June 2019.
62 Interview, Borana Peace Activist, Isiolo, 22 March 2019.
63 Focus group discussion with Interfaith leaders Isiolo town, 8 May 2018.
64 Interview, Borana Peace Activist, Isiolo 22 March 2019.
65 Interview, local administrator in Gotu, 8 September 2018.
66 Interview, Borana Council of Elders, 18 June 2019; Interview, Local administrators, 9 May 2020.
67 Phone interview, a senior county administrator, 16 May 2020.
68 Interview, Borana Council of Elders, 18 June 2019.
69 Interview, county administrator, Isiolo town, 17 October 2018; Interview, Borana Peace Activist, Isiolo 22 March 2019.
70 Interview, an administrator in Gotu, Gotu, 8 September 2018: This was supported by an interview with a senior administrator in Isiolo, 5 May 2020.
71 Phone interview, officer for Parliamentary Service Commission, Isiolo North Constituency office, Isiolo, 23 April 2020.
72 Interview, Borana Council of Elders, 18 June 2019.
73 Phone Interview, Group ranch leader, June 2019.
74 Interview, board member of Nakuprat-Gotu conservancy 8 September 2018.
75 Interview, Borana Council of Elders, 18 June 2019; The Borana Council of Elders was created in 2006 to have a national political organ that brings together all different Borana clans and their traditional institutions that manage all aspects of Borana society.
76 Borana Council of Elders, “Resolution of the Borana Council of Elders.” Slides shared on 12 March 2019 in Isiolo Town. This was broadcast on local radio. https://www.slideshare.net/oskare10/borana-council-of-elders (Accessed 11 May 2020).
77 Phone interview, a senior county administrator, 16 May 2020.
78 Phone interview, a senior county administrator, 16 May 2020; see also Vivian Jebet, “Somali Elders Back Senator Kuti’s Bid for Isiolo Governor.” Daily Nation, April 7, 2017. https://www.nation.co.ke/counties/isiolo/Somali-elders-back-Kuti-Isiolo/1183266-3880822-phrfqnz/index.html
79 F. Ngige and A. Abdi, “Is LAPSSET Cause of the Bloody Conflict Along Meru/Isiolo Border?” The Standard, November 1, 2015. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2000181277/is-lapsset-cause-of-the-bloody-conflict-along-meru-isiolo-border; and Owino “The Implications.”
80 Mugo, “Gov’t Challenged.”
81 Raleigh et al., “Introducing ACLED.”
82 Interview, an official in the office of, Coordination Civic Education, County Cohesion Department, Isiolo, 17 October 2018.
83 High Court of Kenya, Constitutional Petition No. 551
84 Ibid.
85 Resolutions of the Meru/Isiolo leaders meeting held at Sportsman Arms Hotel, Nanyuki, 20 December 2013.
86 High Court of Kenya, Constitutional Petition No. 551.
87 Ali Abdi, “Land Row Rocks Isiolo and Meru as Residents Blame Rift on Lapsset, Army.” The Standard, August 18, 2018. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001292364/land-row-rocks-isiolo-and-meru-as-residents-blame-rift-on-lapsset-army (Accessed 14 November 2018)
88 Kanyinga, “Devolution.”
89 Ibid.
90 Phone interview, Community leader in Ngaremara, 16 May 2020.
91 Kimanthi and Mwiti, “Leaders Clash.”
92 Interview, an administrator for civic education, County Cohesion Department, Isiolo, 17 October 2018.
93 Focus Group Discussion with Borana elders in Kula Mawe, 18 October 2018.
94 Interview, Somali businessman in Isiolo Town, 2019; a county administrator in Ngaremara suggested something similar.
95 Senior County Administrator, Isiolo Town, 17 October 2018.
96 Meru County Government, “County Integrated Development Plan.” See also Hillary Megaka, “Stop claiming our electoral boundaries, Isiolo MPs tell Meru Governor.” People Daily, November 13, 2019. https://www.pd.co.ke/news/politics-analysis/stop-claiming-our-electoral-boundaries-isiolo-mps-tell-meru-governor-13199/
97 Phone interview, peace activist, 10 July 2020.
98 Interview, sub-county administrator in Kinna, 18 October 2018
99 Focus Group Discussion with elders in Kula Mawe, 15 October 2018.
100 Raleigh et al., “Introducing ACLED.”
101 Interviews and observations of burned ground, 9 July 2021.
102 Interview, officer in Parliamentary Service Commission, Isiolo North Constituency office, Isiolo, 20 October 2018.
103 See Letter dated 12 June 2021 from Peace Chairman for Garbatulla to Deputy County Commissioner for Garbatulla “Protest on land owenership at Kambi Samaki (Uchana)” and Letter LND.16/1/VOL.1/102 dated 21 June 2021, from Deputy County Commissioner for Garbatulla to the County Commissioner for Isiolo county. “Protest over NLC compensation on Isiolo-Modogashe rd”.
104 Hesse and MacGregor, “Pastoralism: Drylands Invisible Asset?”
105 Cf. Enns and Bersaglio, “The Coloniality.”
106 Dalle Abraham, “The New Frontier for Development and the Politics of Negation in Northern Kenya.” The Elephant, November 15, 2019. https://www.theelephant.info/features/2019/11/15/the-new-frontier-for-development-and-the-politics-of-negation-in-northern-kenya/
107 Kochore, “Road to Kenya,” 505.
108 Interview, LAPSSET Corridor Development Authority official 19 February 2019.
109 Elliot, “Planning, Property and Plots”; Cf. Li, “Indigeneity, Capitalism, Dispossession.”
110 Li, “Centering Labour”; and “Ethnic Cleansing.”
111 Elliot, “Town Making.”
112 Cf. Szpunar et al., “Neural Envisioning”: Results from neuroscience suggest that humans appear to place their future scenarios in well-known visual–spatial contexts.
113 Cf. Chome, “Land, Livelihoods and Belonging.”
114 Cf. Cross, “Dream Zones.”
115 Cf. Odhiambo’s distinction between two different attitudes to politics among the new Kenyan political elite following independence, with former President Kenyatta representing the mentality to enjoy the fruits of independence by accumulation of personal wealth vs. the faction led by Tom Mboya, who were interested in developing a political vision by reflecting on the purpose of independence and strategies for achieving this. Odhiambo, “The Ideology of Order,” 195.
116 Mkutu, “Anticipation, Participation, and Contestation.”