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ABSTRACT
Rural parts of Kenya are undergoing or are expected to undergo massive social-ecological change as a result of the government’s ambitious development agenda driven by infrastructure and extraction. The pastoralist rangelands near the dormant Mount Suswa volcano in Narok, Kajiado and Nakuru counties have witnessed the creation of a modern railway and a geothermal project, and plans for further geothermal developments are expected together with a large inland port and industrial park. Other scholars identify structural, discursive, organisational and directly violent frontier characteristics which occur at the interface of two social orders and are well recognised in parts of northern Kenya. This article considers how these phenomena play out in a frontier inhabited by marginalised pastoralists but ‘on the doorstep’ of Nairobi and other urban centres. It concludes that most frontier phenomena are also present in marginalised areas closer to the centre and as such, the frontier is not necessarily geographically determined. However, formations of violence and dynamics of policing are different to the north and proximity to the economic and political centre makes a difference, allowing the state to remain more in control.
Acknowledgements
The research is part of a larger project called ‘Future Rural Africa: Future-making and social-ecological transformation’ by the Universities of Bonn and Cologne and BICC (Bonn International Center for Conflict Studies) in collaboration with several African Universities including United States International University-Africa and Kenyatta University in Kenya. Many thanks to all the respondents, research assistants Evelyn Atieno, Daniel Ole Sempui, Simon Maloi and Jackson Shonko, Prof. Conrad Schetter and Tessa Mkutu.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Huang and Lesutis, “Improvised Hybridity.”
2 Hughes, “Moving the Maasai.”
3 Lind, Okenwa, and Scoones, “The Politics”; Mosley and Watson “Frontier Transformations”; Elliot, “Planning, Property and Plots”; Chome, “Land, Livelihoods and Belonging”; Kochore, “The Road to Kenya”; Aalders, “Building on the Ruins”; Cormack, “The Promotion.”
4 Schetter, Müller-Koné and Mkutu, “Frontier NGOs.”
5 Kopytoff, The African Frontier.
6 Pratt, “Imperial Eyes” quoted in Schetter and Müller-Koné, “Frontiers’ Violence.”
7 Lesutis, “Infrastructural Territorialisations.”
8 Enns and Bersaglio, “On the Coloniality”; Kimari and Enrst, “Imperial Remains”; Geiger, Frontier Encounters.
9 Schetter and Müller-Koné, “Frontiers’ Violence,” 2.
10 Agamben, “The State of Exception.”
11 Ron, “Frontiers and Ghettos” quoted in Schetter and Müller-Koné, “Frontiers’ Violence.”
12 Tsing, “Natural Resources.” Korf and Hagmann, “Agamben in the Ogaden.”
13 Korsky, “The Colonial Rule” and Edkins, “Sovereign Power,” quoted in Schetter and Müller-Koné, “Frontiers’ Violence.”
14 Enns and Bersaglio “Enclave Oil Development.”
15 Mkutu and Mdee “Conservancies, Conflict and Dispossession”; Mkutu, “Oil and Emerging Conflict Dynamics.”
16 Kimari and Ernston, “Imperial Remains.”
17 Lind, Okenwa, and Scoones, “The Politics”; Mosley and Watson “Frontier Transformations”; Elliot, “Planning, Property and Plots”; Chome, “Land, Livelihoods and Belonging”; Kochore, “The Road to Kenya”; Aalders, “Building on the Ruins”; Cormack, “The Promotion.”
18 Schetter and Müller-Koné, “Frontiers’ Violence.”
19 Greiner, “Land-Use Change”; Mkutu, Müller-Koné and Owino, “Future Visions, Present Conflicts.”
20 Mkutu “Anticipation, Participation and Contestation.”
21 A group ranch is defined as ‘a livestock production system or enterprise where a group of people jointly hold freehold title to land (theoretically on an equal basis), maintain agreed stocking levels and herd their individually-owned livestock collectively.’ Land Adjudication Act (1968), Cap. 284 and 2.
22 Lesorogol, “Cutting Up the Commons.”
23 Interview with an Elder within Suswa crater near Karuka village, 26 August 2021; it is well known that group-ranch subdivision led to inequality as influential people managed to allocate large and well-located parcels for themselves.
24 Mukeka et al. “Human-Wildlife Conflicts”; Narok County Government, County Integrated Development Plan.
25 Hughes, Moving the Maasai, 208.
26 World Bank, Narok County Rapid Assessment, 24.
27 Agade et al., “Water Governance.”
28 Habitat Planners/China Communications Construction Company, “Proposed Standard Gauge Railway.”
29 Kitimo, A. “Kenya, Uganda, Source Funds to Review SGR Project.” The East African, 20 May 2023. https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/business/kenya-uganda-source-for-funds-to-revive-sgr-project-4241142. Accessed 26 May 2023.
30 Taylor, “Kenya’s New Lunatic Express.”
31 Lesutis “Infrastructural Territorialisations.”
32 Lesutis “Infrastructural Territorialisations”; World Bank, Narok County Rapid Assessment.
33 Interview, Maasai businessman, and Chair of SGR Landowners Committee, Suswa Town, 28 July 2021.
34 Interview, Non-Maasai Businessman, Suswa Town, 20 July 2021; The same was noted in interview, non-Maasai Manager of Suswa SGR Station, Suswa Town, 20 July 2021.
35 Interview, Elite Member of the Maasai Community, Suswa Crater, 24 July 2021.
36 Group interview Maasai Elder and NGO officer, 12 July 2021.
37 Group interview with two church elders from a church in the Kedong Ranch area, Suswa town, 28 July 2021.
38 Interview, Senior county-level administrator, Narok Town, 23 August 2021.
39 Interview, non-Maasai businessman, Suswa Town, 20 July 2021.
40 Interview, Maasai elite in Suswa crater, 26 August 2021.
41 Phone interview, non-Maasai Staff Member in SGR, 21 July 2021.
42 Interview, Maasai Businessman, and Chair of SGR Landowners Committee, Suswa Town, 28 July 2021.
43 Noted by a Maasai from another clan in a group interview with two security guards with the SGR construction company, Suswa Town, 21 July 2021.
44 Interview with Chair and Secretary General of Kitet Community Organization Youth Group, Suswa town, 21 July 2021.
45 Phone interview, non-Maasai Staff Member in SGR, 21 July 2021.
46 Interview, Suswa 14 July 2021.
47 Interview, a Suswa resident and former driver for the SGR project. Suswa town, 21 July 2021.
48 Habitat Planners, China Communications Construction Company, “Proposed Standard Gauge Railway.”
49 Interview, Maasai Businessman, and Chair of SGR Landowners Committee, Suswa Town, 28 July 2021.
50 Focus group discussion with 6 leaders of sand-harvesting groups having a total of 622 members, Kedong Ranch, 28 July 2021; Interview with Chair and Secretary General of Kitet Community Organization Youth Group, Suswa Town, 21 July 2021.
51 World Bank, Narok County Rapid Assessment.
52 Focus group discussion with 6 leaders of sand-harvesting groups having a total of 622 members, Kedong Ranch, 28 July 2021. Several other interviewees mentioned the surge in schoolgirl pregnancies.
53 Olingo, A. “Kenya Fails to Secure $3.6b from China for Third Phase of SGR Line to Kisumu.” The East African, 27 April 2019. https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/business/kenya-fails-to-secure-3-6b-from-china-for-third-phase-of-sgr-line-to-kisumu-1416820; Special Economic Zones Authority, Strategic Environmental Assessment; Aquaclean Services, Environmental and Social Impact Assessment.
54 Special Economic Zones Authority, “Strategic Environmental Assessment.”
55 Omulo, C. “Naivasha Special Economic Zone Seals Sh90bn Deal with Turkish Investors.” The Nation, 27 July 22. https://nation.africa/kenya/business/naivasha-special-economic-zone-sh90bn-turkish-investors-3894160.
56 Ndii, D. “From Game Changer to Railway to Nowhere: The Rise and Fall of Lunatic Line 2.0.” The Elephant. 2021. https://www.theelephant.info/op-eds/2019/11/02/from-game-changer-to-railway-to-nowhere-the-rise-and-fall-of-lunatic-line-2-0/.
57 For the full case see Environment and Land Petition 21 of 2019. http://kenyalaw.org/caselaw/cases/view/209263.
58 Focus group discussion with 6 leaders of sand-harvesting groups having a total of 622 members, Kedong Ranch, 28 July 2021.
59 Group Interview, village elder and market official, Suswa Town, 26 July 2021; Marindany, K. “Maasai Community Rejects Kedong Land Offer.” The Star, 16 February 2020. https://www.the-star.co.ke/counties/rift-valley/2020-02-16-maasai-community-rejects-kedong-land-offer/.
60 Group Interview, village elder and market official, Suswa Town, 26 July 2021.
61 Interview, a senior administrator, Nairagie Enkare Town, 27 July 2021.
62 Focus group discussion with 6 leaders of sand-harvesting groups having a total of 622 members, Kedong Ranch, 28 July 2021.
63 Cherono, S. and E. Matara. “Kenya: Two Dead After Protests Rock Maai-Mahiu Town.” All Africa News, 10 November 2020. https://allafrica.com/stories/202011110151.html.
64 Focus group discussion with 6 leaders of sand-harvesting groups having a total of 622 members, Kedong Ranch, 28 July 2021.
65 Richter, A. “The Top 10 Geothermal Countries 2019 – Based on Installed Generation Capacity (MWe).” Think Geoenergy, 27 January 2020. https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/the-top-10-geothermal-countries-2019-based-on-installed-generation-capacity-mwe/ Accessed 18 December 2021.
66 Hughes and Rogei, “Feeling the Heat.”
67 Geothermal Development Corporation and Redplan Consultants, Environmental and Social Impact Assessment.
68 Barr, S. “Air Pollution Can Increase Risk of Miscarriage by 50% Research Claims.” The Independent, 15 October 2019. https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/air-pollution-miscarriage-pregnancy-women-risk-beijing-china-masks-a9156256.html.
69 Agade et al., “Water Governance.”
70 Collins, T. “Kenya’s Maasai Fear Mass Displacement from Geothermal Plant.” African Business, March 2021. https://african.business/2021/03/energy-resources/kenyas-maasai-fear-geothermal-plant-development/.
71 Renkens, The Impact.
72 Interview with Paulina, one of four women who attended community trip to Olkaria power plant, Karuka village within Suswa crater, 26 August 2021.
73 Interview, local teacher, Mount Suswa, 12 May 2023.
74 Interview with an Elder within Suswa crater near Karuka Village, 26 August 2021.
75 Interview, Maasai elite in Suswa crater, 26 August 2021.
76 Collins, “Kenya’s Maasai.”
77 Renkens, The Impact.
78 Geothermal Development Company, Environmental and Social Impact Assessment.
79 Interview, elder, Suswa crater 12 May 2023; confirmed by conservancy leader, Suswa crater 12 May 2023.
80 Elliot, “Planning, Property and Plots.”
81 Chome, “Land, Livelihoods and Belonging.”
82 Kimari and Ernston, “Imperial Remains.”
83 Lesutis, “Infrastructural Territorialisations.”
84 Ibid.
85 Kiplagat, R. “Over 4,000 Crude Weapons Used in Ethnic Clashes Set Ablaze.” The Standard, 21 September 2020. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/rift-valley/article/2001387228/over-4000-crude-weapons-used-in-ethnic-clashes-set-ablaze.
86 Ruteere, “More than Political Tools.”
87 Schetter and Müller-Koné, “Frontiers’ Violence,” 8.