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ABSTRACT
This paper draws from two experiences with decentralisation in Kenya to illustrate the different ways through which the central government has sought to bolster its power at the expense of the local government in the country’s capital, Nairobi during periods of vertically-unified authority. In the first instance, it examines the years between 1983 and 1992 during which the central government appointed a Commission to replace the elected Nairobi City Council. The second period that is examined is between 2017 and 2022 when certain devolved functions were transferred from the elected Nairobi City County Government to a newly established institution appointed by the President, the Nairobi Metropolitan Service. During both periods authority was vertically unified with the ruling parties also being in control of the city. Drawing on a series of interviews with various stakeholders and inhabitants of informal settlements, the paper argues that contrary to what much literature suggests, recentralisation of urban governance not only occurs in situations of vertically-divided authority but can also occur where authority is unified. Some of the conditions that enabled these power consolidation moves together with the outcomes that these generated are also examined.
Acknowledgements
This paper draws on research conducted as part of my postdoctoral research fellowship at the University of Manchester. I would like to thank Diana Mitlin, Sam Hickey, Tim Kelsall and Ambreena Manji for their very constructive comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript. Special thanks to Tom Goodfellow, Jacob Macdonald, Neil Mitchell, and Maria Jose Ayala for convening seminars where I presented findings from this work. I am very grateful to all the respondents for their invaluable contributions. Thank you to the two anonymous reviewers and editors for their thoughtful and constructive feedback on this paper.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Goodfellow, Politics and the Urban Frontier.
2 Cirolia, “Fractured Fiscal Authority,” 1–8.
3 Eaton et al., The Political Economy of Decentralization Reforms.
4 Stren, “Cities and Politics in the Developing World,” 567–89.
5 Resnick, “Strategies of Subversion.”
6 Ibid.
7 Guma, “The Governance and Politics of Urban Space in the Postcolonial City.”
8 Ibid.
9 Obeng-Odom, “Urban Governance in Africa Today.”
10 Goodfellow and Jackman, “Control the Capital.”
11 Resnick, “Urban Governance and Service Delivery in African Cities.”
12 Poteete and Ribot, “Repertoires of Domination.”
13 Tordoff, “Decentralisation.”
14 Eyoh and Stren, Decentralization and the Politics of Urban Development in West Africa.
15 Wunsch “Decentralisation.”
16 Ibid.
17 Gebremariam, “The Politics of Dominating Addis Ababa, 2005–2018.”
18 Kasfir, “Designs and Dilemmas.”
19 Resnick, “Strategies of Subversion.”
20 Jibao and Prichard, “The Political Economy of Property Tax in Africa”; Cheeseman and De Gramont, “Managing a Mega-City.”
21 Resnick, “Strategies of Subversion.”
22 Lambright, “Opposition Politics and Urban Service Delivery in Kampala, Uganda.”
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid.
25 Guma, “The Governance and Politics of Urban Space in the Postcolonial City.”
26 Goodfellow and Jackman, “Control the Capital.”
27 Muwanga et al., “Carrot, Stick and Statute.”
28 Kelsal et al., Political Settlements & Development.
29 Brown, States of Injury.
30 Dawson and Swiss, “Foreign Aid and the Rule of Law.”
31 Palombella, “The Abuse of the Rule of Law.”
32 Sesay, “Promoting the Rule of Law.”
33 Dibaba, “Central Government Interference.”
34 Muwanga et al., “Carrot, Stick and Statute.”
35 Martinez-Vazquez and Vaillancourt, Decentralization in Developing Countries.
36 Murunga, “Inherently Unhygienic Races.”
37 Oyugi, “Local Government in Kenya.”
38 Okoth-Ogendo, “Constitutions Without Constitutionalism.”
39 Ibid., 133.
40 Tordoff, “Decentralisation.”
41 Lee-Smith and Lamba, “Social Transformation in a Postcolonial City.”
42 Nyong’o, “State and Society in Kenya.”
43 Ogot and Ogot, History of Nairobi 1899–2022.
44 Ibid.
45 R. Irungu, “City Council Suspended.” Daily Nation, March 4, 1983.
46 Hirst and Lamba, The struggle for Nairobi.
47 Ibid.
48 Ibid.
49 Klopp, “Pilfering the Public.”
50 Manji, “The Grabbed State.”
51 Ogot and Ogot, History of Nairobi 1899–2022.
52 M. Njau, “Moi Vows to Prune City Commission.” Daily Nation, January 12, 1989.
53 Hirst and Lamba, The Struggle for Nairobi.
54 P. Nyamora, “City Commission Gets Another Term.” Daily Nation, December 23, 1987.
55 N. Wa Mbugua, “Looking Back on 10 Bad Years of City Omissions.” Sunday Nation, November 15, 1992.
56 The East African, “The Battle for Nairobi Governor Seat.” January 23, 2017. Accessed September 29, 2023. https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/news/east-africa/the-battle-for-nairobi-governor-seat-1360810.
57 Branch and Cheeseman, “The Politics of Control in Kenya.”
58 Hassan, “The Strategic Shuffle.”
59 The East African, “Abolishing Nairobi County: The Lessons from Kampala.” December 12, 2016. Accessed September 29, 2023. https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/news/east-africa/abolishing-nairobi-county-the-lessons-from-kampala-1359104.
60 M. Kinyanjui, “Sonko Reshuffles Cabinet, Again.” The Star, March 31, 2019. Accessed September 29, 2023. https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2019-03-31-confusion-as-sonko-makes-another-cabinet-reshuffle/.
61 Interview with a representative from a Nairobi-based social movement, September 9, 2022.
62 Office of the Spokesperson, State House, Nairobi, “Press Statement.” February 25, 2020. https://www.president.go.ke/2020/02/25/functions-of-nairobi-county-government-handed-over-to-the-national-government-pursuant-to-article-187-of-the-constitution/.
63 Ibid., para. 35.
64 NTV Kenya, “Gloves Off as Sakaja and Igathe Face Off.” Accessed September 29, 2023. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uzQfKiNSPBg&ab_channel=NTVKenya.
65 N. Moturi, “Badi Hands Over All NMS Functions to Governor Sakaja.” Nation, September 30, 2022.
66 Citizen Digital, “NMS Officially Hands Back Nairobi County Functions to Governor Sakaja.” September 30, 2022. https://www.citizen.digital/news/nms-hands-over-functions-to-sakaja-n306583.
67 C. Waitara, “Kenya’s War on Graft: Reasons to Be Wary.” The Elephant, December 5, 2019. Accessed September 29, 2023. https://www.theelephant.info/features/2019/12/05/kenyas-war-on-graft-reasons-to-be-wary/.
68 Kahura, “The Sonkonization of Nairobi: How Mike Sonko is Reshaping City Politics.” The Elephant, August 7, 2017. https://www.theelephant.info/features/2017/08/07/the-sonkonization-of-nairobi-how-mike-sonko-is-reshaping-city-politics/.
69 Weber, Economy and Society.
70 Finnis, “On ‘Positivism’ and ‘Legal Rational Authority’.”
71 Hirst and Lamba, The Struggle for Nairobi.
72 N. Wa Mbugua, “Looking Back on 10 Bad Years of City Omissions.” Sunday Nation, November 15, 1992.
73 Interview with KARA CEO, August 26, 2022.
74 G. Ng’ang’a, “Sakaja, Igathe Face Off at the Nairobi Debate.” The Standard, July 12, 2022. Accessed September 29, 2023. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/sports/amp/politics/2001450120/sakaja-igathe-face-off-at-the-nairobi-debate.
75 Ouma, “Inclusive Urban Planning.”
76 The Daily Kenyan Post, “I Only Take Orders from My Commander in Chief Uhuru Kenyatta, Not from Courts or Silly MCAs- Major General Mohamed Badi Tells Sonko.” July 30, 2020. Accessed September 29, 2023. https://kenyan-post.com/2020/07/i-only-take-orders-from-my-commander-in-chief-uhuru-kenyatta-not-from-courts-or-silly-mcas-major-general-mohamed-badi-tells-sonko/.
77 Klikauer, Managerialism, 5.
78 Dillow, The End of Politics.
79 See Accessed July 20, 2021. https://nms.go.ke/14-2/.
80 Star Reporter, “How I Deal with Sonko: Major General Badi Speaks.” The Star, October 28, 2020. Accessed September 29, 2023. https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2020-10-28-how-i-deal-with-sonko-major-general-badi-speaks/.
81 I. Amuke, “The Rise and Fall of Mike Sonko – Nairobi’s Matatu King.” Mail & Guardian, August 13, 2021. Accessed September 29, 2023. https://mg.co.za/africa/2021-08-13-the-rise-and-fall-of-mike-sonko-nairobis-matatu-king/.
82 Interview with an inhabitant of Mukuru kwa Reuben, September 13, 2022.
83 Interview with KARA CEO, August 26, 2022.
84 Interview with Director Urban Planning and Development, NMS, August 23, 2022.
85 Ibid.
86 Southall and Wood, “Local Government and the Return to Multi-Partyism in Kenya.”
87 Klopp, “Remembering the Destruction of Muoroto.”
88 Ogot and Ogot, History of Nairobi 1899–2022.
89 Ibid., 572.
90 Interview with KARA CEO, August 26, 2022.
91 Ibid.
92 Interview with an inhabitant of Mukuru kwa Reuben, September 13, 2022.
93 Interview with a representative from a Nairobi-based social movement, September 9, 2022.
94 Interview with an inhabitant of Mukuru kwa Reuben, September 13, 2022.
95 Ogot and Ogot, History of Nairobi 1899–2022.
96 Interview with a representative from a Nairobi-based social movement, September 9, 2022.
97 Interview with KARA CEO, August 26, 2022.
98 Interview with a representative from a Nairobi-based social movement, September 9, 2022.
99 Southall and Wood, “Local Government and the Return to Multi-Partyism in Kenya.”
100 Interview with Director Urban Planning and Development, NMS, August 23, 2022.
101 E. Obuya, “Love Gone Sour? Nairobi MCAs Turn the Heat on NMS Boss Badi.” Citizen Digital, April 13, 2021. Accessed September 29, 2023. https://www.citizen.digital/news/love-gone-sour-nairobi-mcas-turn-the-heat-on-nms-boss-badi-10070493.
102 Star Reporter. “How I Deal with Sonko: Major General Badi Speaks.” The Star, October 28, 2020. Accessed September 29, 2023. https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2020-10-28-how-i-deal-with-sonko-major-general-badi-speaks/.
103 Ibid.
104 Ferguson, The Anti-Politics Machine.