The evolution of the Chinese Communist Party's policy on the bourgeoisie (1949–1952)

Abstract

From its very beginning, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) had a shifting policy towards the bourgeoisie. Until the early 1940s, it maintained a relatively stable policy which successfully isolated the monied classes in China and helped it overthrow the rule of the KMT. But with the establishment of the new regime, the CCP Central Committee came under conflicting pressures: on the one hand it continued its former policy out of political expediency; on the other hand, based on traditional socialist political theory and Soviet experience, it kept a close watch on the bourgeoisie and even proposed targeting them as the chief enemy of next revolution. After the establishment of the PRC, as a result of the failing economy and the new government's lack of economic support and political experience, the CCP firmed up its policies on the bourgeoisie. However, with the bourgeoisie and capitalism still prominent elements in Chinese society, the communists became uncertain about which direction to take. As the CCP Central Committee had anticipated, officials of both the party and the government often gave way to corruption after taking over major cities. The Central Committee regarded this particular combination of money and power as a “violent attack” against the new communist regime by the bourgeoisie as a whole. In order to tighten its grip on national power, the Central Committee launched two anti‐corruption movements known as the Three‐Antis and the Five‐Antis. These movements were in fact aimed at the bourgeoisie as a whole, and succeeded in destroying the basis for capitalist business in the New China. Encouraged by this outcome, the CCP launched a policy of socialist transformation aimed at depriving Chinese capitalists of their means of production. Thus the CCP gradually and inevitably moved away from its original policy of cooperation with the national bourgeoisie.

Keywords:

• CCP
• bourgeoisie
• Mao Zedong
• “Three‐Antis” movement
• “Five‐Antis” movement

Notes

1. On the shifting perceptions of and policy on the bourgeoisie, see Yang Kuisong, “CCP's Understanding of and Strategy on the Bourgeoisie in China,” Jindaishi yanjiu [Modern Chinese History Studies], no. 3 (1993).

2. The CCP defined the bourgeoisie so as to include: capitalists in industry and commerce and many small businessmen and shop‐owners; various celebrities as well many relatively wealthy university professors and professionals; the representatives of their interests and claims in various political parties and groups: and even some senior officers and officials who had defected from the Guomindang or the KMT (the Nationalist Party).

3. Mao Zedong, “Lun lianhe zhengfu” [On the Coalition Government], in Mao ZeDong xuanji [Selected Works of Mao Zedong] (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1964), 1047.

4. CCCPC, “Guanyu jianguo yilai ruogan lishi wenti de jueyi” [Resolutions on Several Historic Problems since the Foundation of the PRC] (27 June 1981), in Guanyu jianguo yilai dang de ruogan lishi wenti de jueyi [Resolutions on Several Historic Problems of the Party since the Foundation of the PRC] ed. Zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1985), 18.

5. The published research on the CCP's rejection of New Democratism soon after the foundation of the PRC includes a few brief and unsystematic discussions of the revisions of the CCP's policy towards the bourgeoisie. See Yu Guangyuan, Cong shehuizhuyi shehui lun dao shehuizhuyi chuji jieduan lun [From the Theory of Socialist Society to the Theory of its Developmental Stages], (Beijing: Remin Chubanshe, 1996); Jin Guantao and Liu Qingfeng, “Zhongguo gongchandang weishenme fangqi xinminzhuzhuyi? – wushi niandai chu zhongguo shehui jiegou de jubian” [Why Did the CCP Give Up the New Democratism? Major Changes in Chinese Social Structure in the Early 1950s], Ershiyi shiji [The Twenty‐first Century], no. 13 (October 1992); Yang Kuisong, “Mao Zedong weishenme fangqi xinminzhuzhuyi?” [Why Did Mao Zedong Give Up the New Democratism], in Jindaishi yanjiu, no. 4 (1994); Li Zhongfu, “Zhongguo gongchandang weishenme fangqi xinminzhuzhuyi?” [Why Did the CCP Give Up the New Democratism?], Jindaishi yanjiusuo jikan (Taipei) [The Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica], no. 40 (June 2003).

6. From 1946, the CCP began to launch the land reform in its liberated areas, in which the landlords were deprived of their properties and lands were redistributed to the landless peasants. This reform became a nationwide one with the military victory of the CCP over the mainland China. Except Tibet, the majority of the peasants in China had their own lands when the reform was completed in 1952.

7. Because the CCP supported violent movements of workers and peasants in 1927 and attempted to seize the leadership of the national revolution through actions which brought about the April 12 Incident and the July 15 Incident, the two Nationalist groups – one represented by Jiang Jieshi and the other by Wang Jingwei – ceased their co‐operation with the CCP. As a result, the CCP was bloodily suppressed and suffered great losses and became an underground organization.

8. Mao Zedong, “Mao Zedong zai zhengzhiju kuoda huiyi shang de fayan” [Speech by Mao Zedong to the Enlarged Committee Meeting of the Political Bureau] (1 February 1947).

9. At the end of 1947, when the Communist Party had just entered into the key city of Shijiazhuang in North China, the leaders of the CCP did not even contemplate co‐opting the national bourgeoisie. They just emphasized: “don't treat them the same as secret agents, nor treat them with the approach used in dealing with secret agents”. Liu Shaoqi, “Liu Shaoqi tongzhi dui Shijiazhuang gongzuo de zhishi” [Comrade Liu Shaoqi's Instructions on the Administration of Shijiazhuang] (14 December 1947); also see Liu Shaoqi nianpu (1898–1969) [A Chronological Biography of Liu Shaoqi (1898–1969)] II (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1996), 109.

10. “Chen Yongwen chuanda shaoqi tongzhi zhishi” [The Instructions of Comrade Shaoqi Delivered by Chen Yongwen] (20 November 1947), documented by Shijiazhuang Archives, 1‐1‐5.

11. Zhang Wentian, “Chengshi zhong de diwei he chengshi gongzuo zhong de jiejiluxian” [The Role of City and Class Line in the Management of Cities] (31 August 1948), in Zhang Wentian dongbei wenxuan [Selected Works of Zhang Wentian during his Activities in Northeast China], ed. Chen Baicun (Harbin: Heilongjiang renmin chubanshe, 1990), 197.

12. Mao Zedong, “Zhonggongzhongyang zhengzhiju kuoda huiyi shang Mao Zedong zai Chen Boda fayan shi de chahua” [Mao Zedong's Interruption of Chen Boda's Speech to the Enlarged Committee Meeting of the Political Bureau of the CCP] (September 1948).

13. Liu Shaoqi, “Liu Shaoqi zai zhonggongzhongyang zhengzhiju kuoda huiyi shang de fayan” [Liu Shaoqi's Speech to the Enlarged Committee Meeting of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the CCP] (13 September 1948), see Liu Shaoqi zhuan [Biography of Liu Shaoqi] vol. II (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1998), 612.

14. Mao Zedong, “Mao Zedong zai zhonggongzhongyang zhengzhiju huiyi shang de jielun” [Mao Zedong's Conclusions at the Meeting of the Central Committee of the CCP] (13 September 1948), in Mao Zedong wenji [The Collected Works of Mao Zedong], vol. V (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1996), 145–6.

15. Mao Zedong, “Mao Zedong zai zhonggongzhongyang zhengzhiju huiyi shang de fayan” [Mao Zedong's Address to the Meeting of the Central Committee of the CCP] (8 January 1948), see Mao Zedong wenji, vol. V, 232–5.

16. “Er qu yi, shiyi, er, shi jie huibao” [The Reports from the First, Eleventh, Second and Tenth Streets of the Second Borough] (13 December 1947), in Shijiazhuang Archives 1‐1‐8, 132–3; “Kefu kunnan changqi jianshe” [To Overcome the Obstacles to Long‐term Construction], Xin shi meng ribao [New Shimeng Daily] (27 November 1947), first ed.

17. Bo Yibo, “Ruogan zhongda juece yu lishi shijian de huigu” [Reflections on Certain Major Decisions and Events], vol. I (Beijing: Zhonggongzhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, 1991), 50–1.

18. N.T. Fedorenko and I.V. Kovalev, “Migaoyang fuhua de mimi shiming” [Mikoyan's Secret Mission to China], in Mao Zedong, Sidalin he Heluxiaofu jiaowang lu [Communications between Mao Zedong, Stalin and Khrushchev] (Beijing: Dongfang chubanshe, 2004), 24.

19. Liu Shaoqi zhuan [Biography of Liu Shaoqi], 626–31.

20. CCCPC, “Zhongguo renmin zhengzhi xieshang huiyi gongtong gangling” [The Common Program of the CCCPC], (29 September 1949), in Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian [Selected Collections of Important Documents from the Foundation of the PRC], vol. I, ed.? (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1992), 2–4, 7–10.

21. According to Zhou Enlai, the phrase Laozi liangli was proposed by Mao Zedong. Zhou Enlai, “Renmin zhengxie gongtong gangling cao'an de tedian” [The Characteristics of the Draft of the Common Program of the CPPCC] (22 September 1949); “Zhonghua quanguo zong gonghui guanyu laozi guanxi zanxing chuli banfa” [Temporary Measures on Capital‐Labor Relations by the All‐China Federation of Trade Unions] (22 November 1949), in Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian, vol. I, 18, 41.

22. “Zhonghua quanguo zong gonghui,” 41–2.

23. Dong Zhikai, ed., 1949–1952 zhongguo jingji fenxi [Analysis of the Chinese Economy, 1949–52] (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1996), 161.

24. The population of six million meant there were at most 1,500,000 households in Shanghai, with an average of four persons per household. If there were two labourers per household, the Shanghai workforce would have been around three million. An unemployed population of 200,000 meant that of a dozen of labourers, one had lost the means of making a living.

25. Mao Zedong, “Zai quanguo tongzhan huiyi gongshang zu taolun hui de yifen fayan jilugao shang de piyu” [Notes on the Deliberations of the Business Group Seminar Held at the National United Front Work Meeting] (April 1950), in? Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao [Writings of Mao Zedong from the Foundation of the PRC] vol. I, (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1993), 292–4.

26. Zhou Enlai, “Fahui renmin minzhu tongyi zhanxian jiji zuoyong de jige wenti” [Several Issues in Fully Utilizing the People's Democratic United Front] (13 April 1950), in Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian, vol. I, 178–82.

27. Mao Zedong, “Mao Zedong zai qijie sanzhong quanhui shang de jianghua” [Mao Zedong's Speech at the Third Plenum of the 7th Central Committee of the CCP] (6 June 1950); Mao Zedong, “Buyao simianchuji” [Don't Hit Out in All Directions], in Mao Zedong xuanji [Selected Works of Mao Zedong ] vol. V, (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1978), 21–4.

28. Zhou Enlai, “Zhou Enlai zai tongzhan gongzuo huibaohui shang de baogao” [Zhou Enlai's Speech at the Briefings of the United Front Work] (19 June 1952).

29. Institute of Economics, CASS, Zhongguo zibenzhuyi gongshangye de shehuizhuyi gaizao [Socialist Transformation of the Capitalist Economy in China] (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1978), 123.

30. Li Weihan, “Renmin minzhu tongyi zhanxian de xin xingshi he xin renwu” [The New Situation and Tasks of the People's Democratic United Front] (21 March 1950), in Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian, vol. I, 145–8.

31. Mao Zedong, “Diudiao huanxiang, zhunbei douzheng” [Throw Away Illusions, Prepare for the Fight] (14 August 1949), “Biele, Situleideng” [Farewell, John Leighton Stuart] (18 April 1949), “Weishenme yao taolun baipishu” [Why We Had to Talk about the White Paper] (28 August 1949), “Youyi haishi qinlue?” [Friendship or Aggression?] (30 August 1949), “Weixin shiguan de pochan” [The Bankruptcy of the Idealistic Conception of History] (16 September 1949), in Mao Zedong xuanji [Selected Works of Mao Zedong] 4, 1487–520.

32. “Guo Moruo yu sulian zhuhua dashi Luoshen de tanhua jilu” [Records of the Talks between Soviet Ambassador Roshchin and Guo Moruo] (28 October 1949).

33. Mao Zedong xuanji, 4, 1491–2.

34. North China Bureau of the CCP, “Xiang tanwu fuhua qingxiang zhankai jianjue de douzheng” [Embark on a Campaign against Corruption and Demoralization], Jianshe [Construction], no. 127 (24 November 1951), 9–11.

35. “Beijing shiwei guanyu gongzuo renyuan zhong de tanwu xianxiang ji dui jinhou kaizhan fan tanwu douzheng yijian de baogao” [Report on Corruption among Government Personnel, and Running a Campaign against Corruption by the Beijing Municipal Committee of the CCP], in Jianshe, no. 129 (10 December 1951), 1–3.

36. “Zhongyang maoyi bu dangzu guanyu dazhangqigu gongkai de fandui tanwu xianxiang he chengzhi tanwu renyuan de baogao” [Report on the Massive Commitment to Anti‐corruption and the Punishment of Corrupt Personnel by the Party Group of the Central Trade Ministry], Jianshe, no. 129, 5–6; “Zhongyang caizheng bu dangzu guanyu kaizhan fan tanwu fan langfei fan guanliaozhuyi yundong de baogao” [Report on Launching a Campaign against Corruption, Waste and Bureaucratism by the Party Group of the Central Finance Ministry], no. 130 (19 December 1951), 15–16.

37. Mao Zedong, “Mao zhuxi pizhun huadong junqu dangweihui guanyu kaizhan sanfan douzheng de zhishi” [Chairman Mao Approved and Transmitted the Instructions of the Communist Party Committee of the East China Military Zone Concerning Launching the Three Antis Movement], Jianshe, no. 135 (5 January 1952), 5–6.

38. Mao Zedong, “Huanan fenju di qishi'er ci changweihui Luo Ruiqing tongzhi de chuanda baogao” [Report Delivered by Comrade Luo Ruiqing on the 72nd Standing Committee of the South China Bureau of the CCP] (25 February 1952), in Guangdong Province Archives, 206‐1‐44, 58–61.

39. “Zhonggong zhongyang guanyu jingbingjianzheng, zengchanjieyue, fandui tanwu, fandui langfei he fandui guanliaozhuyi de jueding” [The CCP's Central Committee's Resolution on Downsizing the Army and Improving the Efficiency of the Government, Increasing Production with Less Waste, and Condemning Corruption, Waste and Bureaucratism] (1 December 1951), in Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian, vol. I, 473.

40. “Zhonggong zhongyang guanyu zai ‘sanfan’ douzheng zhong chengban fanfa de gongshangyezhe he jianjue ditui zichanjieji changkuang jigong de zhishi” [The CCP Central Committee's Instructions on the Punishment of Those Private Businessmen Who Broke the Law, and Resolutely Fighting Back against the Bourgeoisie's Violent Attack through the Three Antis Movement] (5 January 1952), in Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian, vol. IV, 14.

41. Li Zicheng was the leader of peasants' uprising who once led the army occupying Beijing and brought the fall of the Ming Dynasty. But his victory was short‐lived. A general loyal to the Ming called on the Manchu forces to drive him out. Li was finally killed after his defeat.

42. Mao Zedong, “Zhongyang zhuanfa Beijing shiwei guanyu sanfan douzheng de baogao de piyu” [The Approval and Transmission of the CCP's Central Committee's Opinion on the Report on the Three Antis Movement Submitted by the Beijing Municipal Committee of the CCP] (5 January 1952), in Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao, vol. III, 21.

43. According to available information, up to the end of 1951 tax evasion committed by private businesses in Tianjin amounted to 800 billion RMB; the value of state assets stolen by 190 private enterprises in Beijing amounted to 200 billion RMB. The case of Shanghai businessman Zhu Peinong involved tax evasion worth more than 18 billion RMB. See Yang Er, “Bochi zichanjieji de miulun: zichanjiejie meiyou xiang gongren jieji changkuang jingong ma?” [Refute the Fallacy Proposed by the Bourgeoisie: Haven't the Bourgeoisie Violently Attacked the Working Class?], Xuexi [Study], no. 2 (1952), 7.

44. “Huanan fenju di qishi'er ci changweihui Luo Ruiqing tongzhi de chuanda baogao” (25 February 1952). See footnote 41.

45. “Zhonggong zhongyang guanyu shouxian zai dazhong chengshi kaizhan ‘wufan’ douzheng de zhishi” [The CCP Central Committee's Instructions on Launching the Five Antis Movement First in Large and Midsize Cities] (26 January 1952), in Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian, vol. III, 53–4.

46. Ibid.

47. Ibid

48. Zhou Enlai, “‘Sanfan’ yundong yu minzu zichanjieji” [The Three Antis Movement and the National Bourgeoisie] (January 5, 1952), in Zhou Enlai xuanji [Selected Works of Zhou Enlai], vol. II, ed.? (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1986), 81–3.

49. “Huanan fenju di qishi'er ci changweihui Luo Ruiqing tongzhi de chuanda baogao” (25 February 1952).

50. Ibid.

51. Mao Zedong's instructions on this matter have not yet been published. But Liu Shaoqi and other leaders' opinions on their revision can be found in Jianguo yilai Liu Shaoqi wengao [Writings of Liu Shaoqi from the Foundation of the PRC] vol. IV, ed. CCCPC (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2004), 41–2.

52. For example, Li Fuchun approved the demand that Shi Fuliang, a deputy minister in the Ministry of Labor, made an act of self‐criticism, a common practice in the political campaigns of the time. Later, Li explained to Mao Zedong that he intended to “let people know that Shi was a representative of the bourgeoisie”, and to “prepare for the dismissal of Shi Fuliang, who was unsuitable to work in the Ministry of Labor which should protect the interests of laborers rather than sheltering a representative of the bourgeoisie”. “Li Fuchun dui pubian jiaodai wenti dianbao de yijian” [Li Fuchun's Opinion on the Telegram of Universal Confession] (15 March 1952).

53. Here, “four friends” refers to worker, peasant, petit bourgeoisie and national bourgeoisie in the revolution.

54. Here, “four friends” refers to worker, peasant, petit bourgeoisie and national bourgeoisie in the revolution.

55. “Guanyu zhongguo de minzu zichanjieji wenti” [On the National Bourgeoisie in China] (19 June 1952), in Zhou Enlai xuanji, vol. II, 93–103. Another version of the report is entitled, “Zhou Enlai zai tongzhan gongzuo huibaohui de baogao”, with some deletions and revisions.

56. Mao Zedong, “Dui Huang Yanpei yipian jianghuagao de fuxin, piyu he xiugai” [The Reply, Notes and Revision of the Draft of the Speech by Huang Yanpei] (5 and 13 September 1952), Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao, vol. III, 533–5.

57. “Zhongyang guanyu tongyi Nanjing shi tuibu kongzhi shu jiangdi de fudian” [Th??e Reply of the CCP Central Committee Regarding Approval for Reducing (the Capitalists') Reimbursement in Nanjing] (20 June 1952), in “sanfan”, “wufan” yundong (Jiangsu province) [The Three Antis and Five Antis Movements: Jiangsu province] (Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi chubanshe, 2003), 283.

58. “Zhou Enlai zai tongzhan gongzuo huibaohui shang de baogao” (19 June 1952); “Mao Zedong zai zhengzhiju huiyi shang de fayan” [Mao Zedong's Speech at the Meeting of the Political Bureau] (29 July 1953).

59. Mao Zedong, “Xianjieduan guonei de zhuyao maodun” [Major Domestic Conflicts at the Current Stage] (6 June, 1952), in Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian, vol. I, 231.

60. Mao Zedong, “Guanyu Luo Ruiqing chuanda shixian shehuizhuyi de shijian wenti gei ge tongzhi de xin” [Letters to Comrades on the Timetable for Realizing Socialism Delivered by Luo Ruiqing] (13 November 1952), in Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao, vol. III, 609. Also see Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi, ed., Mao Zedong zhuan (1949–1976) [Biography of Mao Zedong], vol. I (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2003), 236–7.

61. Ibid.

62. Liu Shaoqi lun xin zhongguo jingji jianshe [On the Economic Construction of the New China by Liu Shaoqi] (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 1993), 240–3.

63. Mao Zedong, “Dang zai guodu shiqi de zong luxian” [The CCP's Guidelines for the Transitional Period] (August 1952), in Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao, vol. IV, 301.