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Abstract
In the historical context of the late Qing and early Republican period, the traditional Chinese concepts of “civilization” and “culture” generally experienced the following changes: these concepts at first shed their neglect of material, economic, and military content and developed a new concept of “civilization” in the modern sense which included the idea of evolution, that is to say the modern concept of “culture” in a broad sense. Then these concepts went through another process in which they partially, from a different angle, rediscovered the key components of the traditional “civilization” and “culture” of China, in opposition to “militarized” and “materialized” concepts. In this way they were able to regain some new intellectual resources and to reestablish a new concept of “culture” in a narrow sense. Finally, a modern concept of “culture” was born, with a contradictory structure in which the contents of both a broad and a narrow sense coexisted at the same time. The process of formation and evolution of two such important modern concepts, at the same time, reflects how the modern Chinese applied these new concepts in their social reforms and practice. During the Hundred-Day Reform of the late nineteenth century, the modern concept of “civilization” began to spread among members of the literati, bringing along with it a whole series of concepts dominated by modern values that would unavoidably become the ideological basis on which the reforms could be put into comprehensive practice. Meanwhile the concept of “culture” in a narrow sense appeared to merge with its counterpart in a broader sense and had an impact on the early development of the future May Fourth New Culture Movement.
Acknowledgement
This article has received funding from the Program for New Century Excellent Talents at the University of Chinese Ministry of Education (NCET). The grant number is NCET-07-0822.
Notes
1 See Suzuki Shūji, “ ‘Bunka’ to ‘Bunmei’ ” [“Culture” and “Civilization”], in Bunmei no kotoba [Words Concerning Civilization] (Hiroshima: Bunka hyōron shuppan, 1981); see also Fang Weigui, “Jin xiandai zhongguo ‘wenming’ ‘wenhua’ guan de shanbian” [The Evolution of “Civilization” and “Culture” in Modern and Contemporary China], Shilin [Historical Review] 4 (1999). These are the most important results of early research.
2 Reymond Williams, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (London: Flamingo, 1983), 57–60, 87–91.
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11 Kang Youwei, “Riben bianzheng kao” [A Study of Institutional Reforms in Japan], vol. 6, in the appendix of Huang Zhangjian's Kang Youwei wuxu zhenzouyi [Kang Youwei's Memos during the Hundred-Day Reform] (Taipei: The Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica, 1974), 243–44.
12 On this issue, German scholar Reinhart Koselleck has some excellent comments, see the English version of his article “‘Progress’ and ‘Decline’,” in The Practice of Conceptual History (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002), 118–235.
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28 Zou Rong, preface to and chap. 3 of Gemingjun [The Revolutionary Army] (Beijing: Huaxia chubanshe, 2002), 8, 35.
29 Zhang Taiyan, “Ding fuchou zhi shifei” [Rights and Wrongs of Vengeance], Minbao 16, 1907.
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31Lu Xun, “Wenhua Pianzhilun” [The Lopsided Development of Culture], in Lu Xun quanji [The Complete Works of Lu Xun] (Beijing: Renmin wenzue chubanshe, 1981), vol. 1, 57.
32 Du Yaquan, “Zhanhou dongxi wenming zhi tiaohe” [Reconciliation of the Post-War Civilizations in the East and West], Dongfang zazhi [The Eastern Miscellany] 14, no. 4 (1917).
33 Du Yaquan, “Jingde wenming yu dongde wenming” [The Static and Dynamic Civilizations], Dongfang zazhi 13, no. 10 (1916).
34 Tang Jinggao, ed., Xinwenhua cishu [Dictionary of New Culture], 1st ed. (Shanghai: The Commercial Press, 1923).
36 Tao Lugong, “Renlei wenhua zhi qiyuan” [Origins of Human Cultures], Xinqingnian [New Youth] 2, no. 5, (January 1, 1917). See also “Wenhua de shanbian” [The Evolution of Cultures], Dazhonghua zazhi [The Great China Magazine] 2, no. 8 (August 1916).
35Chen Duxiu, “Wuren zuihou zhi juewu” [Our Countrymen's Final Consciousness], Qingnian zazhi [The Youth Magazine], vol. 1, no. 6 (February 15, 1916).
37 Chen Duxiu, “Xinwenhua yundong shi shenme?” [What is the New Culture Movement?], Xinqingnian 7, no. 5 (April 1, 1920).
38 Chen Duxiu, “Jiusixiang yu guoti wenti” [Old Thoughts and the Problem of National Polity], Xinqingnian 3, no. 3 (May 1, 1917).
39Shouchang [pseud. Li Dazhao], “Xinjiu sixiang zhi jizhan” [A Fierce Battle between Old and New Modes of Thinking], Meizhou pinglun [The Weekly Review], no. 12 (March 9, 1919).
40 Jun Shi, “Xinwenhua zhi neirong” [The Content of New Culture], Dongfang zazhi 17, no. 19 (October, 1920).
41 Liang Shuming, Dongxi wenhua jiqi zhexue [Eastern and Western Cultures and Their Philosophies] (repr. Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1987), 53–55.
42 Hu Shi, “Women duiyu xiyang jindai wenming de taidu” [Our Attitude toward the Modern Western Civilization], in Hu Shi wenji [The Collected Works of Hu Shi], ed. Ouyang Zhesheng, vol. 4 (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1998).
43 Liang Qichao, “Shenme shi wenhua?” [What is Culture?], in Liang Qichao quanji, vol. 7, 4060–63.
44 Liang Qichao, “Zhongguo lishi yanjiufa bubian” [A Supplement to the Research Method for Chinese History], in Liang Qichao quanji, vol. 8, 4854.
45 See entries of “civilization” and “culture” in Wu Nianci et al., eds., Xinshuyu cidian [A Dictionary of New Terminology], 1st ed. (Shanghai: Nanqiang shuju, 1929), 245–46.
46 Li Dazhao, “ ‘Shaonian zhongguo’ de ‘shaonian yundong’ ” [The Youth Movement of Young China], in Li Dazhao xuanji [The Selected Works of Li Dazhao] (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1959), 236.
47See Chen Duxiu, “Tan zhengzhi” [On Politics], Xinqingnian [New Youth], vol. 8, no. 1 (September 1920).
48 Chen Duxiu, “Wenhua yundong yu shehui yundong” [Cultural Movement and Social Movement], Xinqingnian 9, no. 1 (May 1, 1921).