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Abstract
This paper investigates the formation of the concept of science in modern Chinese thought from four perspectives. The first aspect concentrates on the Japanese origin of the concept of science, analyzing this concept through the formation of the late Qing branches of learning, fenke zhixue, and the knowledge system of positivism. The second aspect takes gezhi (investigating things and extending knowledge), qiongli (exhaustion of principle) and other concepts as clues and analyzes the relationship between the concepts of modern science and the study of the school of principle lixue to show the breakdown and connection between scientific concepts fused in the three aspects of nature, morality and politics and the Confucian world view. The third aspect takes as its focus the systematization of scientific research, analyzing the agencies of science, scientific publications and the scientific community's formation and the influence of these elements on society and culture. The fourth aspect takes the May Fourth debate on East–West notions of civilization and the debate on science and metaphysics as its focus, discussing scientific language, the debate between civilizations and the formation of the fields of humanities and social sciences.
Notes
1 Nishi Amane, “Chisetsu” [Theory of Knowledge], 4th part, Meiroku zasshi [Meiroku Journal] 22 (December, 1874). Collected in Ōkubo Toshiaki, ed., Nishi Amane zenshu [Collected Works of Nishi Amane], vol. 1 (1960; repr., Tōkyō: Yoshikawa Kōbunkan, 1970), 462.
2 Nishi Amane, Hyakugaku renkan [The Links of a Hundred Sciences], Meiroku zasshi 22, in Meiroku zashii, ed. Yamamuro Shin'ichi and Nakanome Tōru, vol. 2 (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 2009), 236.
3 Nishi Amane, “Shōhaku sakki” [Sundry Notes of Shōhaku], in Nishi Amane zenshu, vol. 1, 165–66.
4 Kang Youwei, “Riben shumuzhi zixu” [Self-preface to Catalogue of Japanese Books], in Kang Youwei quanji [Complete Works of Kang Youwei], vol. 3 (Beijing: Zhongguo renmin daxue chubanshe, 2007), 263–64.
5 Kang Youwei, “Riben shumuzhi” vol. 2, “Lixue men” [School of the Study of Principle], in Kang Youwei quanji, vol. 3, 279.
6 This is the brochure of the published subdirectory. He used this catalogue's “category index” and its “published subdirectory,” in a slightly altered form (added, deleted and changed things), with a reduction of five of the number of schools (the names of the schools were slightly different), with a deletion of 2362 kinds of books and an addition of three kinds of books. Wang Baoping, “Kō Yūi ‘Nippon shomokushi’ shutten kou” [Investigation into the Publication of Kang Youwei's Catalogue of Japanese Books], Kyūko 57 (June 2010): 13–29.
7 Liang Qichao, “Dili yu wenming zhi guanxi” [The Relationship between Geography and Civilization], in Yinbingshi heji [Collected Works from the Ice-Sipper's Studio], vol. 10 (Shanghai: Zhonghua shuju, 1936), 113.
8 Liang Qichao, “Bianfa tongyi-lun keju” [General Discussion on Reform: On the Imperial Examination System], in Yinbingshi heji, vol. 1, 27–28.
9Yan Fu's translation has not given a reference to the original text and the French spelling of the name of the author. After many efforts, scholars failed to identify who Qi Chali, the French legal scholar, is. The translation itself here is, however, inspiring for us to understand the use of the term kexue in his context.
10 Yan Fu, “Guojixue jiabu (cangao) anyu” [Note to National Economy: Part 1 (Incomplete Manuscript)], in Yan Fu ji [Collected Works of Yan Fu], vol. 4 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1986), 847, 848. Further quotations from Yan Fu in this paragraph are also from here. (This incomplete manuscript has not yet revealed the source of the original quotation, and the original author's name is not known.)
11 Liang Qichao, “Shuoqunxu” [Preface to Speaking about Groups], in Yinbingshi heji, vol. 2, 4.
12 Liang Qichao, “Xixue shumu biao xuli” [Preface to Bibliography of Western Learning], in Yinbingshi heji, vol. 1, 123.
13 Ibid., 124.
14 Yan Fu, “Yuan qiang xiudinggao” [Corrected Manuscript of “On Power”], in Yan Fu ji, vol. 1, 22–23.
16 Yan Fu, “Yi Qunxue yiyan zixu” [Preface to the Translation of A Study of Sociology], in Yan Fu ji, vol. 1, 123.
15 Yan Fu, “Xixue menjing gongyong” [Means and Applications of Western Knowledge], in Yan Fu ji, vol. 1, 94.
18 Yan Fu, “Yuan qiang” [On Power], in Yan Fu ji, vol. 1, 5–6.
17Feng Guifen, “Cai xixue yi” [Proposal to Adopt Western Learning], in Jiaobinlu kangyi [Personal Protests from the Jiaobin Studio], ed. Dai Yangben (Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou guji chubanshe, 1998), 209.
20 Liang Qichao, “Lun xueshu zhi shili zuoyou shijie” [On the Power of Knowledge to Change the World], in Yinbingshi heji, vol. 6, 112.
19 Du Yaquan, “Yaquan zazhi xu” [Preface to Yaquan zazhi], in Yaquan zazhi [Yaquan Magazine] 1 (October 8, 1900).
21 Yaquan zazhi published “Riben lixue shumu” [Catalogue of Japanese Science] 7 (February 1901): 10–13; “Riben lixue, shuxue shumu” [Catalogue of Japanese Science, Mathematics] 8 (March 1901): 7–9; “Riben suanxue shumu” [Catalogue of Japanese Arithmetic] 10 (April 1901): 8–10.
22 The fourth issue “Sheshuo” was published in Kexue shijie [Science World] 1, no. 1, and included Wang Benxiang, “Lun like yu qunzhi zhi guanxi” [Discussing the Relationship of Science and Group Rule]; Yu Heqin, “Xianjin shijie qi jiesheng laoli zhi jingzheng changhu” [Is there a Competition for Labor Saving in the Modern World?]; Yu Heqin, “Yuanlixue” [Origin of Science]; and Yu Heqin, “Lixue yu hanyi” [Science and Chinese Medicine] (March 1903).
23 Xu Guangqi, “Yixue zhangshu” [The Study of Medicine with Chapter Commentary], in Xu Guangqi ji [Collected Works of Xu Guangqi], vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1984), 134.
24 Fang Yizhi, “Tongya” [Comprehensive Glossary], in Fang Yizhi quanshu [Complete Works of Fang Yizhi], vol. 1 (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1982), 40–41.
26 Qian Mu, Zhuzi xinxue'an [New Studies of Master Zhu], vol. 2 (Chengdu: Bashu shushe, 1987), 707.
25 Li Xueqin, ed., Shisanjing zhushu-Zhouli zhushu [Thirteen Classics with Notes and Commentary: The Rituals of Zhou with Notes and Commentary] (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 1999), 1450.
27 Yan Fu's famous translation from the works of Huxley, Tianyan lun [Evolution and Ethics] (Beijing: The Commercial Press, 1981), 92.
28 Zhang Taiyan, “Sihuolun” [Essay on Four Confusions], in Zhang Taiyan quanji [Complete Works of Zhang Taiyan], vol. 4 (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1984), 443–44.
29 Zhang Xiaoping and Pan Yanming, “Zhongguo jindai keji qikan jianjie, 1900–1919” [A Short Introduction to Chinese Modern Scientific Journals (1900–1919)], in Xinhai geming shiqi qikan jieshao [An Introduction to the Periodicals during the Revolution of 1911], vol. 4 (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1986), 694.
30 Wang Benxiang, “Lun like yu qunzhi zhi guanxi” [A Discussion on the Relationship between Science and Group Governance], Kexue shijie [Science World] 1, no. 1 (March, 1903).
31“Lunlixue zhiyan” [Random Words on Ethics], Kexue yiban, no. 3 (1907): 1. Kexue yiban was edited by Kexue yanjiuhui [Science Research Committee], which was made up of the members of the Shanghai Longmen Normal School, previously called Longmen Academy. Tang Shouqian was president and the monthly journal was launched in July 1907 in Shanghai.
35 Wu Zhihui, “Shu Shenzhou ribao ‘dongxue xijian pian’ hou” [Letter to the Shenzhou Daily: “A Piece on the East Studying the West Gradually.” Afterword], in Wu Zhihui xiansheng quanji [Complete Works of Mr. Wu Zhihui], vol. 2 (Shanghai: Qunzhong tushu gongsi, 1927), 99.
32 Chen Duxiu, “Kelinde bei” [Monument to Kettler], Xinqingnian [New Youth] 5, no. 5 (Oct 15, 1918): 458.
33 Chen Duxiu, “Jinggao qingnian” [Call to Youth], Xinqingnian 1, no. 1 (Sept 15, 1915): 5–6.
34 Chen Duxiu, “Jindai xiyang jiaoyu” [Modern Western Education], Xinqingnian 3, no. 5 (July 1, 1917): 1–4.
37 Wu Zhihui, “Yige xinxinyang de yuzhouguan ji renshengguan” [A New Faith of Universal Outlook and Human Outlook], in Wu Zhihui xiansheng quanji, vol. 4, 138.
36 Wu Zhihui, “Bujiu zhongguo wenzi zhi fangfa ruohe” [The Method on how to Remedy China's Script], in Wu Zhihui xiansheng quanji, vol. 3, 50.
38 Wu Zhihui, “Xinshiji zhi geming” [The Revolution of the New Century], Xinshiji [New Century] 1 (June 22, 1907): 1.
39 Liang Shuming, “Dongxi wenhua jiqi zhexue daoyan” [Introduction to Eastern and Western Cultures and their Philosophies], in Liang Shuming quanji [Collected Works of Liang Shuming], vol. 1 (Jinan: Shandong renmin chubanshe, 1989), 352.
40 Ibid., 353.
41 Ibid., 383.
42 Zhang Junmai, “Zai lun renshengguan yu kexue bing da Ding Zaijun” [Once more Speaking of a Philosophy of Life and Science. A Response to Ding Zaijun], in Renshengguan zhi lunzhan [Debate on the Philosophy of Life], ed. Zhang Junmai, vol. 1 (Shanghai: Taidong tushuju, 1923), 64–65.
43 Ibid., 29.
44 Ibid.
47 Ibid., 8–9.
45 Zhang Junmai, “Renshengguan zhi lunzhan xu” [Preface to the Debate on the Philosophy of Life], in Renshengguan zhi lunzhan, vol. 1, 5.
46 Ibid., 5.
48 Ibid., 15.