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Abstract
This article examines Li Hanjun's views on socialism. Li Hanjun was one of the main founders of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), and expressed his vision and ideas of socialism during the 1920s. Like many other Communists in the early CCP, he was convinced that China should take a socialist road. Yet, in respect to how to realise socialism and what kind of socialist society should be built, Li held a view different from most of them. In his opinion, the governing institutions in a socialist society should be democratic and autonomous rather than centralist and bureaucratic; production and distribution should be administered and managed by an association of free and equal producers in the form of cooperatives instead of by the state and its officials. These views were quite distinct from the Soviet centralised state socialism and the dictatorship by a ruling elite. However, his ideas and designs of the economic and political institutions in socialist society were consonant with Marx on many points. Besides examining Li Hanjun's socialist views, this research also attempts to explore his philosophical inclinations and political orientation, in order to explain why he could conceive such special ideas of a socialist fabric.
Notes
1Li Hanjun's name does not even appear in M. Meisner's Li Ta-chao and the Origins of Chinese Marxism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967); Lee Feigon's Chen Duxiu, Founder of the Chinese Communist Party (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983); S.R. Schram's Mao Tse-tung (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1966); or D.Y.K. Kwan's Marxist Intellectuals and the Chinese Labor Movement, A Study of Deng Zhongxia (Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1997).
Li Hanjun's name was mentioned in B.I. Schwartz's Chinese Communism and the Rise of Mao (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1967); N. Knight's Li Da and Marxist Philosophy in China (Colorado and Oxford: Westview Press, 1996); and R.K. Schoppa's Blood Road: The Mystery of Shen Dingyi in Revolutionary China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).
2These works include A. Dirlik's The Origins of Chinese Communism (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989); M.Y.L. Luk's The Origins of Chinese Bolshevism, An Ideology in the Making, 1920–1928 (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1990); Hans J. van der Ven's From Friend to Comrade, the Founding of the Chinese Communist Party, 1920–1927 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Kim Sooyoung's The Comintern and the Far Eastern Communist Movement in Shanghai, 1919–1922: The Meaning of Internationalism (PhD diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1996).
3Luo Jialun, “Jinri zhi shijie xinchao” [The New Tide of Today's World], Xinchao [New Tide] 1, no. 1 (1919): 19.
4Yang Duanliu, “Guiguo zagan” [Random Thoughts on Returning to the Motherland], Taipingyang [The Pacific Magazine] 3, no. 6 (1920).
5Xianjin (Li Hanjun's penname), “Wenhua yundong de liangshi gongji” [Providing Sustenance for the Cultural Movement], Juewu [Awakening], a supplement to Minguo ribao [The Republican Daily News], March 19, 1920, 4.
6Xingtian (Shen Yanbing's pen name), “Ji Li Hanjun” [Memoir of Li Hanjun], Bitan [Pen Conversations], no. 3 (1941): 35.
7FO 228/3211, July 1920; FO 405/228, 7 April 1920; FO 228/3214, June 1920; VKP(b), Komintern i Nazionalno Revoluzionnoe Dvijenie v Kitae, Dokumenti [All Union Communist Party (b), the Comintern and National Revolutionary Movement in China, Documents] (Moscow: Institut Dal'nevo Vostoka [The Institute of the Far East], RAN, 1994), vol. 1, no. 2, no. 7.
8For example, Maring (Sneevliet), the Comintern representative in China, believed that Li Hanjun was “one of the best skilled theoretical workers”. Maring, “Report on the Situation in China and Our Work in the Period 15–31 May 1923 for the ECCI and Profintern, Vladivostok Bureau and Eastern Department ECCI” in T. Saich, The Origins of the First United Front in China, The Role of Sneevliet (Alias Maring), (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1991), vol. 2, 539. Shen Yanbing, who joined the CCP in 1921, once wrote that Li Hanjun's level of Marxist theory surpassed Chen Duxiu's. See original manuscript of Shen Yanbing's autobiography.
9Hanjun, “Shehuizhuyi yu ziyou piping” [Socialism and Free Criticism], “Ziyou piping yu shehui wenti” [Free Criticism and Social Issues], “Yanjiu Makesi xueshuo de biyao ji women xianzai rushou de fangfa” [The Necessity of Studying Marxism and How to Make a Start on it], Juewu (May 21, 1920): 3, (May 30, 1920): 4, (June 6, 1922): 4.
10Li Hanjun, “Shehuizhuyi di paibie” [Schools of Socialism], Juewu, Special Social Sciences Issues, no. 12 (1925): 4; Hanjun, “Shehui kexue tekan fakan zhiqu” [Our Aim in Starting the Publication of Special Social Sciences Issues], sequel, Juewu, Special Social Sciences Issues, no. 2 (1924): 5.
11The definitions Li cited were from issue 2 of Shakaishugi kenkyū [Socialist Research], edited by Yamakawa Hitosh.
12Li, “Shehuizhuyi di paibie”, no. 12: 4.
13Hanjun, “I.W.W. gaiyao” [A General Survey of the IWW], Xingqi pinglun, no. 33 (1920): 3; Hanjun, “Ziyou piping yu shehui wenti”, 4.
14This article was compiled from the notes during his lectures at the “Society for Studying History and Sociology” of Wuchang Normal University between 1923 and 1925.
15Li, “Shehuizhuyi di paibie”, no. 12: 2–3.
16Li Da, “Makesi huanyuan” [Returning to Marx], Xin qingnian [New Youth] 8, no. 5 (1921): 1, 8.
17Chen Duxiu, “Shehuizhuyi piping” [The Critique of Socialism], Xin qingnian 9, no. 3 (1921): 13.
18Hanjun, “Ziyou piping yu shehui wenti”, 4.
19Hanjun, “Du Zhang Wentian xiansheng di ‘Zhongguo di luanyuan jiqi jiejue’” [On Mr Zhang Wentian's “Origins and Settlement of Chaos in China”], Juewu (February 6, 1922): 4.
20Marx and Engels, The German Ideology, ed. C.J. Arthur (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1974), 56–57.
21“Duanyan” [Brief Foreword], Gongchandang [The Communist], no. 5 (1921): 1; Jiangchun (Li Da's pen name), “Shehuigeming di shangque” [The Discussion of Social Revolution], Gongchandang, no. 2 (1920): 3; Li Da, “Taolun shehuizhuyi bing zhi Liang Rengong” [A Discussion on Socialism and Questions Addressed to Liang Rengong], Xing qingnian 9, no. 1 (1921): 7, 15.
22Cai Hesen, “Makesi xueshuo yu zhongguo wuchanjieji” [Marxist Theory and the Chinese Proletariat], Xin qingnian 9, no. 4 (1921): 8.
23The details of the polemics are given in Cai Guoyu's monograph 1920 niandai chuqi zhongguo shehui zhuyi lunzhan [Polemics on Socialism in China during the Early 1920s] (Taipei: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1988).
24Li Dazhao, “Zhongguo de shehuizhuyi yu shijie de zibenzhuyi” [Chinese Socialism and World Capitalism], in Li Dazhao wenji [Writings of Li Dazhao] (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1984), vol. 2, 454–55.
25Chen, “Shehuizhuyi piping”, 7; Duxiu, “Guoqing jinian di jiazhi” [The Value of Commemorating National Day], Xin qingnian 8, no. 3 (1920): 3.
26Zhou Fohai, “Shixing shehuizhuyi yu fazhan shiye” [Realising Socialism and Developing Industry], Xin qingnian 8, no. 5 (1921): 4, 10, 12.
27See Hanjun, “Jin le bu le” [Some Progress Has Been Made], Xin qingnian 9, no. 1; Hanjun, “Fa zujie dianche bagong gei women de jiaoxun” [Lessons from the Tram Workers' Strike in the French Concession], Juewu (March 8, 1921): 4; Hanjun, “Yuan zai wang ye” [That a Wrong He Has Suffered], Juewu (August 14, 1921): 4.
28Hanjun, “Shehuizhuyi shi jiao ren qiong de me?” [Does Socialism Make People Poor?], Xin qingnian 9, no. 1, 2; Han, “Taipingyang huiyi ji women ying qu de taidu” [How We Should Deal with the Pacific Conference], Gongchandang, no. 6 (1921): 20–21.
29Hanjun, “Zhongguo di luanyuan jiqi guisu” [The Origins of China's Chaos and Their Ultimate Fate], “Women ruhe shi zhongguo di hunluan gankuai zhongzhi?” [How Can We Quickly Bring China's Chaotic Situation to An End?], Juewu, supplementary issue, 1, 2 (January 1, 1922).
30Luk, The Origins of Chinese Bolshevism, 47–48.
31Lenin, “Democracy and Narodism in China” in Lenin's Collected Works (LCW) (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1964-1976), vol. 18, 169.
32 Meisner, Marxism, Maoism, and Utopianism (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), 89.
33Lenin, “Report of the Commission on the National and Colonial Questions” in LCW, vol. 31, 244.
34Marx and Engels, The German Ideology, 89.
35Ibid.
36See Marx, “First Draft of Letter to V. Zasulich” in Marx and Engels, Collected Works (MECW) (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1975-2004), vol. 24, 346–60.
37Hanjun, “Yanjiu Makesi xueshuo de biyao ji women xianzai rushou de fangfa”.
38See Zhang Jinglu, ed., Duwei Luosu yanjianglu hekan [Collected Speeches by Dewey and Russell] (Shanghai: Taidong shuju, 1921); Feng Chongyi, “Luosu fanghua pingyi” [A Fair Comment on Russell's Visit in China], Jindaishi yanjiu [Modern Chinese History Studies], no. 4 (1991): 153–79.
39Marx and Engels, The Communist Manifesto With an Introduction and Notes by G.S. Jones (London: Penguin, 2002), 241, 243.
40Hanjun, “Hankou renli chefu bagong di jiaoxun” [Lessons of the Rickshaw Coolies' Strike in Hankou], Juewu (January 3, 1922); Hanjun “Du Yong'an gongsi ‘feigudong’ quanti zhiyuan qishi” [Views on Reading the Announcement by Yong'an Company's Non-shareholding Shop-Assistants], Pingmin [Common People], no. 55 (1921): 2.
41Li, “Shehuizhuyi di paibie”, no. 14: 4.
42Hanjun, Weiwushiguan jiangyi chugao [Materialist Conception of History, Teaching Materials (First Draft)] (Wuchang: Zhengxin yinwuguan), vol. 2, 84.
43Li Renjie, “Gaizao yao quanbu gaizao” [Transformation Should Be Complete], Jianshe [Construction] 1, no. 6 (1920): 1165–66; Jinghu, “Jinian erqi de yiyi” [The Significance of Commemorating the Incident of February 7th], Jiangsheng rikan [Voice of Yangtze River Daily], February 11, 1924.
44Chang Kuo-t'ao, The Rise of the Chinese Communist Party, 1921–1927 (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1971), vol. 1, 144.
45Ibid., 144–45; Li Da, “Zhongguo gongchandang de faqi he diyici dierci daibiao dahui jingguo de huiyi” [Memoirs on the Founding of the CCP and the Process of Its First and Second Congresses], in Yida qianhou: zhongguo gongchandang diyici daibiao dahui qianhou ziliao xuanbian [The Period of the Founding of the CCP: Selected Source Materials on the Period of the First National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party], ed. Zhongguo shehui kexueyuan xiandaishi yanjiushi, Zhongguo geming bowuguan dangshi yanjiushi (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1980), vol. 2, 11; Chen Tanqiu, “Diyici daibiao dahui de huiyi” [Reminiscences of the First Congress], in Yida qianhou, 286–87.
46“The First Congress of the Chinese Communist Party” in Saich, The Origins of the First United Front in China, vol. 1, 206.
47Hanjun, “Women ruhe shi zhongguo di hunluan gankuai zhongzhi?”
48“Chen Duxiu san da Ou Shengbai shu” [Chen Duxiu's Third Answer to Ou Shengbai], Xin qingnian 9, no. 4 (1921), 29.
49Fohai, “Geming dingyao daduoshu ren lai gan ma?” [Is A Revolution Necessarily by the Majority of People?], Xin qingnian 9, no. 5 (1921).
50C.T. (Shi Cuntong's pen name), “Women yao zenmeyang gan shehuigeming?” [How to Carry out A Social Revolution?], Gongchandang, no. 5 (1921): 19.
51Hanjun, Weiwushiguan jiangyi chugao, vol. 1, 83–84; vol. 2, 62, 47–48.
52Ibid., vol. 1, 7–12; vol. 2, 11, 90.
53Hanjun, “Women ruhe shi zhongguo di hunluan gankuai zhongzhi?”, Du Zhang Wentian xiansheng di ‘Zhongguo di luanyuan jiqi jiejue.’
54Hanjun, “Women ruhe shi zhongguo di hunluan gankuai zhongzhi?”
55See Mao Zedong, “Xin minzhuzhuyi lun” [On New Democracy], “Muqian xingshi he women de renwu” [The Present Situation and Our Tasks], in Mao Zedong xuanji [Selected Works of Mao Zedong] (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1967), 623–70, 1139–58. The original plan was that the transition period would last about 15 years. However, the CCP declared in 1956 that socialist transformation had been completed.
56Hanjun, “Women ruhe shi zhongguo di hunluan gankuai zhongzhi?”, Li Renjie, “Youdai xuesheng yu youdai laodongzhe de yiyi ji kefou” [The Significance of Giving Preferential Treatment to Students or Workers, and My Opinion], Juewu (March 18, 1920): 4; Han, “Taipingyang huiyi ji women ying qu de taidu”, 19.
57Hanjun, “Women ruhe shi zhongguo di hunluan gankuai zhongzhi?”
58Hanjun, Weiwu shiguan jiangyi chugao, vol. 1, 7–10.
59Jun, “Laonong zhidu yanjiu” [A Study of the System of the Government of Workers and Peasants], Gongchandang, no. 5 (1921): 32.
60 Yida qianhou, vol. 2, 36, 7.
61 Gongchandang, no. 5 (1921): 32–33.
62L. Eyre, “Suweiai gongheguo chanfu he ying'er ji kexuejia” [Women before and after Childbirth, Infants and Scientists in the Soviet Republic], trans. Hanjun, Xin qingnian 8, no. 2 (1920): 3.
63 LCW, vol. 25, 461–63.
64Marx, “The Civil War in France” in MECW, vol. 22, 334, 536 .
65E. Rapaport, “Anarchism and Authority in Marx's Socialist Politics” in B. Jessop and R. Wheatley eds., Karl Marx's Social and Political Thought: Critical Assessments of Leading Political Philosophers, Second Series (London: Routledge, 1999), vol. 12, 696.
66Li once argued that the CCP should adopt the principle of the Constitution of Soviet Union, and did not need to centralise its organisation. See Cai Hesen, “Zhongguo gongchandang shi de fazhan (tigang)” [An Outline of the Historical Development of the CCP], in Zhonggong dangshi baogao xuanbian [Selected Reports on the History of the CCP], ed. Zhongyang dang'an guan [Central Archives] (Beijing: Zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, 1982), 29. In Dewey's opinion, the Soviet Constitution adopted the essential elements of guild socialism and syndicalism. See Chow Tse-tsung, The May Fourth Movement: Intellectual Revolution in Modern China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960), 229.
67Quoted from M. McCauley, The Soviet Union since 1917 (London: Longman, 1981), 48.
68See J. Bunyan and H.H. Fisher, The Bolshevik Revolution, 1917–1918, Documents and Materials (Stanford: Stanford University press, 1943), 187–88; J.F. Hough and M. Fainsod, How the Soviet Union Is Governed (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), 82.
69Lenin, “Summing-up Speech on the Report of the CC of the RCP(B)” in LCW, vol. 32, 199.
70J. Degras ed., The Communist International, 1919–1943, Documents (London: Oxford University Press, 1956), vol. 1, 127–28.
71Lenin, “The Immediate Tasks of the Soviet Government” in LCW, vol. 27, 271.
72“A Brief History of the Chinese Communist Party” in Documents on Communism, Nationalism and Soviet Advisers in China, ed. C.M. Wilbur and J.L.Y. How (New York: Columbia University Press, 1956), 53.
73Chang Kuo-t'ao, The Rise of the Chinese Communist Party, vol. 1, 144; Zhang Guotao, “Zhang Guotao guanyu zhonggong chengli qianhou qingkuang de jianggao” [Zhang Guotao's Draft of Speeches on the Events Happened during the Period of the Establishment of the CCP], Bainian chao [Hundred Year Tide], no. 2 (2002): 55.
74Chen Duxiu, “Tan zhengzhi” [Talking about Politics], Xin qingnian 8, no. 1 (1920): 8–9; Chen, “Shehuizhuyi piping”, 13; Jiang Chun, “Shehuigeming di shangque”, 4.
75“Cai Linbin to Mao Zedong”, 16 September 1920, in Makesizhuyi zai zhongguo — cong yingxiang de chuanru dao chuanbo [Marxism in China — From Introduction to Dissemination], ed. Lin Daizhao and Pan Guohua (Beijing: Qinghua daxue chubanshe, 1983), vol. 2, 117; Cai Hesen, “Zhongguo gemingyundong yu guoji zhi guanxi” [The Revolutionary Movement and Its Relationship with International World], Xiangdao [Guide Weekly], no. 23 (1923): 168.
76Chen Duxiu, “Bei zhi wushen gao lun” [There Is Nothing Particular in These Ideas], Xin qingnian 9, no. 3 (1921), 3; Chen Duxiu, “Chen Duxiu da Ou Shengbai de xin” [Chen Duxiu's Reply to Ou Shengbai], Xin qingnian 9, no. 4 (1921): 6.
77Duxiu, “Zhongguoshi de wuzhengfu zhuyi” [A Chinese Brand of Anarchism], Xin qingnian 9, no. 1 (1921): 6.
78Zhang Songnian, “Ying fa gongchandang — zhonguo gaizao” [The Communist Parties in Britain and France — China's Transformation], a letter to Chen Duxiu; “Duxiu zhi Shenfu” [Duxiu's Reply to Shenfu], Xin qingnian 9, no. 3 (1921): 2–3.
79Chen Duxiu, “Da Huang Lingshuang” [Chen Duxiu's Reply to Huang Lingshuang], 1 July 1922, in Chen Duxiu shuxinji [Collected Letters of Chen Duxiu], ed. Shui Ru (Beijing: Xinhua chubanshe, 1987), 376.
80Li Bing, “Gongchandang xuanyan de houxu” [The Postscript of the Communist Manifesto], Xianqu [Pioneer], no. 3 (1922): 3.
81Xinkai, “Zailun gongchanzhuyi yu jierte shehuizhuyi” [More Comments on Communism and Guild Socialism], Xin qingnian 9, no. 6 (1922): 46–47.
82C.T., “Women yao zenmeyang gan shehuigeming?”, 29.
83Xuan, “Ping zhongguo de jierte shehuizhuyi” [On China's Guild Socialism], Xianqu [Pioneer], no. 3, (1922): 2; Xinkai, “Zailun gongchanzhuyi yu jierte shehuizhuyi”, 45; Wuxie (Zhou Fohai's penname), “Women weishenme zhuzhang gongchanzhuyi?” [Why We Advocate Communism?], Gongchandang, no. 4 (1921): 25.
84“Duanyan” Gongchandang, no. 4 (1921): 1; Chen, “Tan zhengzhi”, 4; Chen, “Da Huang Lingshuang”, 376; Jiang Chun, “Wuzhengfuzhuyi jiepou” [Dissection of Anarchism], Gongchandang, no. 4: 23; C.T., “Women yao zenmeyang gan shehuigeming?”, 19–20; Wuxie, “Duoqu zhengquan” [Seizing Political Power], Gongchandang, no. 5 (1921): 6.
85Renjie, “Shaoshuren zhengzhi zhi weixian” [The Dangers of Politics Played by A Few People], Juewu, November 29 and December 9, 1919; Hanjun, “Women ruhe shi zhongguo di hunluan gankuai zhongzhi?” 2.
86Hanjun, Weiwushiguan jiangyi chugao, vol. 1, 16.
87Han, “Taipingyang huiyi ji women ying qu de taidu”, 14, 20; Xianjin, “Senhuzhu jiaoshou wenti yu riben yulun” [The Question of Associate Professor Morido Tasuku and Public Opinion in Japan], Xingqi pinglun, no. 35 (1920): 4; Xianjin, “Heibai de chongtu” [Conflicts between Blacks and Whites], Xingqi pinglun, no.13 (1919): 4.
88Jinghu, “Jinian erqi de yiyi”; Jun, “Laonong zhidu yanjiu”, 32.
89Ri Jinketsu (Li Renjie), “Chugoku musan kaikyu oyobi sono undo no tokushitsu” [The Distinguishing Features of the Chinese Proletariat and Their Movements], Kaizō [Reconstruction] 8, no. 8 (1926): 28–29.
90This “Draft Constitution” has not been found so far and its gist can only be seen in Shen Xuanlu's “Zhejiang sheng pingmin zizhi xianfa shuomingshu” [Explanation of a Draft Constitution for the Common People's Autonomy in Zhejiang Province], Zeren [Responsibility], no. 1 (1922).
91Xianjin, “Duiyu Yingguo dabagong de ganxiang” [My Thoughts on the Great Strikes in Britain], Xingqi pinglun, no. 19 (1919): 3.
92This paragraph is in the end part of Shop Talks on Economics.
93Marx, “The Civil War in France” in MECW, vol. 22, 332–33, 339.
94Ri Jinketsu, “Chugoku musan kaikyu oyobi sono undo no tokushitsu”, 28; Li Renjie, “Gaizao yao quanbu gaizao”, 1151; Hanjun, Weiwushiguan jiangyi chugao, vol. 1, 111.
95Hanjun, “Shehui kexue tekan fakan zhiqu”, 4–5.
96Cai, “Zhongguo gongchandang shi de fazhan”, 29–30.
97Hanjun, “Du Zhang Wentian xiansheng di ‘Zhongguo di luanyuan jiqi jiejue’”, 4.
98Renjie, “Shaoshuren zhengzhi zhi weixian”, 2.
99Chen Duxiu, “Guanyu shehuizhuyi wenti” [On the Issues of Socialism], in Chen Duxiu zhuzuo xuan [Selected Works of Chen Duxiu] (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1993), vol. 2, 465.
100Li, “Shehuizhuyi di paibie”, no. 12: 4; Hanjun, “Shehui kexue tekan fakan zhiqu”, 5.
101See Li Hanjun's articles “Shehuizhuyi di paibie”, no. 12: 4, no. 14: 7; “Ziyou piping yu shehui wenti”, “Taipingyang huiyi ji women ying qu de taidu”, “Women ruhe shi zhongguo di hunluan gankuai zhongzhi?”, “Jin le bu le”.
102Li Hanjun, “Shehuizhuyi di paibie”, no. 14: 7; Hanjun, “Women ruhe shi zhongguo di hunluan gankuai zhongzhi?”, 2.
103Li Da, “Zhongguo gongchandang de faqi he diyici dierci daibiao dahui jingguo de huiyi”, 7; Shi Fuliang, “Zhongguo gongchandang chengli shiqi de jige wenti” [Some Issues during the Period of the Formation of the CCP], in Yida qianhou, vol. 2: 36.
104G.D.H. Cole, A History of Socialist Thought (London: Macmillan, 1960), vol. 3, part 2, 653.
105Zhang Shuting, “Jianlun zhongguo zaoqi hezuoyundong de lilun xuanchuan he chubu shijian” [Brief Comment on the Cooperative Movement's Theoretical Propagation and Preliminary Practice in China at the Early Period], Lanzhou xuekan [Lanzhou Academic Journal], no. 6 (2005).
106Gongqingtuan zhongyang qingyunshi yanjiushi and Zhongguo shehui kexueyuan xiandaishi yanjiushi, eds., Qingnian gongchanguoji yu zhongguo qingnian yundong [The Youth Communist International and the Chinese Youth Movement] (Beijing: Zhongguo qingnian chubanshe, 1985), 598; See Dai Jitao, “Chanye xiezuoshe fa cao'an ji liyou shu” [The Draft Rules of Cooperative Industrial Societies and Their Reasons], Xin qingnian 9, no. 1; Yu Xiusong's diary, 18 July 1920, in Shanghai gemingshi ziliao yu yanjiu [Materials and Studies on Shanghai Revolutionary History], no. 1 (1992): 313.
107Hanjun, “Laodongzhe yu guojiyundong” [Labourers and the International Movements], Xingqi pinglun, no. 51 (1920): 1; the English translation is quoted from MECW, vol. 20, 11, 190.
108Li Da's recollection, in Yida qianhou 2, 7–8.
109Chen Duxiu, “Wo de yijian” [My opinions], Xin qingnian 7, no. 6 (1920): 46; “Chen Duxiu to Zhang Dongsun”, 17 September 1922, in Chen Duxiu shuxinji, 377.
110Gongqingtuan zhongyang qingyunshi yanjiushi and Zhongguo shehui kexueyuan xiandaishi yanjiushi, eds., Qingnian gongchanguoji yu zhongguo qingnian yundong, 598.
111“Duanyan” Gongchandang, no. 1 (1920): 1.
112This Platform mentions “workers' management”, however, what it underlies is the “centralised organs for the management of production”. See Part 3 of the Platform, in A. Adler, ed., Theses, Resolutions and Manifestos of the First Four Congresses of the Third International (London: Ink Links, 1980), 42–44.
113Chen Duxiu, “Zao guo lun” [On the Creation of A New State], Xiangdao, no. 2 (1922): 10; Chen, “Shehuizhuyi piping”, 2. Chen sometimes wrote in other places that at the first stage state capitalism would be adopted, where the state need not monopolise all industrial and commercial enterprises and would not ban all private enterprises immediately. See “Chen Duxiu to Dongsun” in Chen Duxiu shuxinji, 377.
114S.C. (Li Dazhao's pen name), “Shehuizhuyi xia zhi shiye” [Industry under Socialism], 1921, in Li Dazhao wenji, vol. 2, 446.
115“Duanyan”, Gongchandang, no. 4: 1; Chen Duxiu, “Shehuizhuyi piping”, 2; Jiang Chun, “Shehuigeming di shangque”, 4; ”Wuzhengfuzhuyi jiepou”, 23; Wuxie, “Women weishenme zhuzhang gongchanzhuyi?”, 27; Cuntong, “Makesi di gongchanzhuyi” [Marxist Communism], Xin qingnian 9, no. 4 (1921): 3–4; Xinkai, “Gongchanzhuyi yu jierte shehuizhuyi” [Communism and Guild Socialism], Xin qingnian 9, no. 5 (1921): 4; Xuan, “Ping zhongguo de jierte shehuizhuyi”, 1.
118Jiang Chun, “Shehuigeming di shangque”, 4.
116Li Da had translated Takabatake Motoyuki's Shakai mondai soulan [An Overview of Social Problem], which laid the emphasis on the role of the state in the new society. See Knight, Li Da and Marxist Philosophy in China, 121.
117This quotation appeared in Li Da's “Makesi pai shehuizhuyi” [Marxist Socialism], Xin qingnian 9, no. 2 (1921): 9.
119Li, “Makesi pai shehuizhuyi”, 7.
120See Chen Duxiu, “Shehuizhuyi piping”; Wuxie, “Duoqu zhengquan”; Jiang Chun, “Wuzhengfuzhuyi jiepou”, “Shehuigeming di shangque”; Chen Duxiu, “Da Huang Lingshuang”, “Chen Duxiu san da Ou Shengbai shu”; Cuntong, “Makesi di gongchanzhuyi”.
121Hanjun, “Shehui kexue tekan fakan zhiqu”, 2; Li Hanjun, “Shehuizhuyi di paibie”, no. 12: 4.
122Xinkai, “Gongchanzhuyi yu jierte shehuizhuyi”, 4; Xuan, “Ping zhongguo de jierte shehuizhuyi”, 1.
123Engels, “Principles of Communism” in MECW, vol. 6, 351.
124“F. Engels to E. Bernstein”, 12 March 1881, in MECW, vol. 46, 74.
125Li Hanjun, “Shehuizhuyi di paibie”, no. 14: 5.
126Ibid.
127The part of “the Preamble to the IWW Constitution” and the revised Preamble can be seen in Cole, A History of Socialist Thought, vol. 3, part 2, 800–801.
128Xianjin, “IWW de yan'ge” [The Evolution of the IWW], Xingqi pinglun, no. 24 (1919): 3.
129Hanjun, “I.W.W. gaiyao”. See Cole, vol. 3, Part 2, 469–70, 491–93.
130Li, “Shehuizhuyi di paibie”, no. 14: 5–6; Hanjun, “I.W.W. gaiyao”.
131See H. Pelling, ed., The Challenge of Socialism (The British Political Tradition, Book 7) (London: A & C Black Publishers, 1954), 217–31.
132Hanjun, “Ziyou piping yu shehui wenti”, 4; Li, “Shehuizhuyi di paibie”, no. 14: 5.
133Marx, “The Civil War in France”, 335, 491.
134Rapaport, “Anarchism and Authority in Marx's Socialist Politics”, 689.
135Li cited from Capital, vol. 3, chapter 15, in Weiwushiguan jiangyi chugao, vol. 2, 80.
136Li Da's recollection, in Yida qianhou, vol. 2, 7.
137Marx, “Capital” in MECW, vol. 3, vol. 37, 438; Marx, “Instructions for the Delegates of the Provisional General Council of the Geneva Congress” in MECW, vol. 20, 190.
138Marx, “The Civil War in France”, 335.
139Marx, “Inaugural Address of the Working Men's International Association” in MECW, vol. 20, 11; Marx, “Capital”, vol. 3, 807.
140J. Elster, “Desirable, Why Are There So Few Cooperatives?” in E.F. Paul et al., eds., Socialism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989), 99–100.
141Li, “Gaizao yao quanbu gaizao”, 1145.
142See Meisner, Li Ta-chao and the Origins of Chinese Marxism, 8–10, 40.
143Wang Jiping et al., Cai Hesen sixiang lungao [Thesis on Cai Hesen's Thinking] (Changsha: Hunan renmin chubanshe, 2003), 4.
144B. Watson, trans., Mo Tzu, Basic Writings (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), 34–38.
145Duxiu, “Zhongguoshi de wuzhengfu zhuyi”, 6.
146“Tian Haiyan ji Dong lao tanhua” [Dong Biwu's Talk], recorded by Tian Haiyan in 1961 (unpublished).
147Li Da, “Zhongguo gongchandang chengli shiqi de sixiang douzheng qingkuang” [On the Ideological Struggles during the Period of the Establishment of the CCP], in Yida qianhou 2: 52; Cai, “Zhongguo gongchandang shi de fazhan”, 29.
149Dirlik, Anarchism in the Chinese Revolution (Berkeley, Los Angeles and Oxford: University of California Press, 1991), 182.
148Rapaport, “Anarchism and Authority in Marx's Socialist Politics”, 688, 694.
150See AF, “Wei shenme fandui Buershiweike” [Why We Oppose the Bolsheviks?], Fendou [Struggle] (30 April, 1920); “Zheng Xianzong to Chen Duxiu”, Xin qingnian 8, no. 3 (1920): 2; Taipu, “Wuzhengfuzhuyi yu zhongguo” [Anarchism and China], Ziyou [Freedom], no. 1 (1920); “Zhu Qianzhi to Duxiu”, Xin qingnian 9, no. 3 (1921): 4.
151Ren Wuxiong, “Ping xuezhe xing gemingjia Li Hanjun” [On Li Hanjun — A Revolutionary and A Scholar], in Shanghai gemingshi ziliao yu yanjiu, no. 6 (2006): 445.
152Hanjun, “Weiwu shiguan bushi shenme?” [What Conceptions Do Not Belong to the Materialist Conception of History?], Juewu (23 January 1921): 4; Hanjun, Weiwu shiguan jiangyi chugao, vol. 1, 43–44.
153Lin Yu-sheng, The Crisis of Chinese Consciousness: Radical Anti-Traditionalism in the May Fourth Era (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1979), 63; Gao Like, Wusi de sixiang shijie [The Ideological Environment in the May Fourth Era] (Shanghai: Xuelin chubanshe, 2003), 226; Zhu Yan, Wannian Chen Duxiu [Chen Duxiu in His Later Years] (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 2006), 228.
154Chen Yung-fa, Zhongguo gongchan geming qishinian [Seventy Years of the Communist Revolution in China] (Taipei: Linking Books, 1998), vol. 1, 67.
155Hanjun, Weiwu shiguan jiangyi chugao, vol. 2, 48.
156C.T., “Women yao zenmeyang gan shehuigeming?”, 31–32.
157Hu Jian, “Gongju lixing yihuo jiazhi lixing — Chen Duxiu yu Li Dazhao de shehuizhuyi guan zhi chayi” [Instrumental Rationality or Value Rationality – On the Difference between Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao's Views of Socialism], Zhexue yanjiu [Philosophical Researches], no. 4 (2006): 22–26.
158E. Fromm, Marx's Concept of Man, with a Translation from Marx's Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts by T.B. Bottomore (New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing, 1972), 127, 136, 177; Essential Writings of Karl Marx, selected, and with an introduction and notes by D. Caute (New York: Macmillan,1967), 54.
159Xianjin, “Zenmeyang jinhua” [How Should We Evolve?], Xingqi pinglun, no. 11 (1919): 2–3.
160Marx, “Capital”, vol. 1, 639; Marx and Engels, The Communist Manifesto, 227; B. Ollman, Alienation: Marx's Conception of Man in Capitalist Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), 60–62.
161Hanjun, “Laodongzhe yu guojiyundong”, no. 53, 2.
162Xianjin, “Zuijin Shanghai de bagong fengchao” [The Recent Strike Wave in Shanghai], Xingqi pinglun, no. 21 (1919): 4; Xianjin, “Zenmoyang jinhua?”, 3; Hanjun, “Hunpu de shehuizhuyizhe di tebiede laodong yundong yijian” [Special Views on the Labour Movements Held by A Vague Socialist], Xingqi pinglun, no. 50 (1920): 2; Ri Jinketsu, “Chugoku musan kaikyu oyobi sono undo no tokushitsu”, 23; Li Renjie, “Nannü jiefang” [The Emancipation of Men and Women], Xingqi pinglun, no. 31 (1920): 6; Hanjun, “Zhe nüshi kaichu xuesheng de liyou!?” [Why Zhejiang Women's Normal School Expelled Students!?], Juewu (March 6, 1921): 4.
163Hanjun, “Funü wenti de guanjian” [The Crux of the Women's Issue], Juewu (July 26, 1921): 4.
164See I. Kant, “Transition from Popular Moral Philosophy to the Metaphysics of Morals” in The Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, trans. A. Zweig and ed. T.E. Hill and A. Zweig, (Oxford: Oxford University press, 2002), 208–45.
165Translator's note 4 of “Nüzi jianglai de diwei” [Women in the Future], Hanjun translated from part of F.A. Bebel's Der Sozialismus und die Freatt (sic) [Women under Socialism], Xin qingnian 8, no. 1, 8; Li, “Nannü jiefang”, 6.
166Quoted from G.M. Stekloff, Chapter 3, in History of The First International (London: Martin Lawrence, 1928), which is different from the Rules of 1871.
167Hanjun, “Ziyou piping yu shehui wenti”, 4; “Zhang Guotao guanyu zhonggong chengli qianhou qingkuang de jianggao”, 55; Bao Huiseng huiyilu [Bao Huiseng's Reminiscences] (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1983), 18.
168Xiao Yu, Mao Zedong yu wo [Mao Zedong and I] (Taipei: Yuancheng Publishing Company, 1976), 64.
169Lenin, “The Tasks of the Proletariat in Our Revolution” in LCW, vol. 24, 88.
170Lenin, “The Deception of the People with Slogans of Freedom and Equality” in LCW, vol. 29, 376.
171Li, “Shehuizhuyi di paibie”, no. 12: 4; Liu Zigu, “Oral Recollections of Li Hanjun”, 1981 (unpublished).
172Marx, “The Nationalisation of the Land” in MECW, vol. 23, 136.
173See B. Jossa, “Marx, Marxism and the Cooperative Movement”, Cambridge Journal of Economics, no. 29 (2005).
174Marx, “Notes on Bakunin's Book Statehood and Anarchy” in MECW, vol. 24, 520; “Engels' Amendments to the Programme of the North England Socialist Federation” in MECW, vol. 26, 619.
175Marx and Engels, German Ideology, 83; Marx, “First Draft of The Civil War in France”, 486–87.
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