On modern Chinese nationalism and its conceptualization

Abstract

Modern Chinese nationalism arose in the early twentieth century, and its intellectual sources included traditional Chinese nationalism and modern Western nationalism. Since its emergence in the early twentieth century, modern Chinese nationalism underwent three stages: formation, evolvement and climax. The relevant theory of modern Chinese nationalism underwent a similar process of construction. During the period of the late Qing and early Republic, the nationalist theory revolved around the issue of building what kind of nation–state: the revolutionaries represented by Sun Yat-sen advocated “excluding Manchu” and establishing a single-nation state of the Han; while the Constitutionalists represented by Liang Qichao called for “incorporating Manchu” and building a multi-nation state. After a series of heated debates, the two parties reached a consensus about establishing an independent, democratic and unified multinational country. During the May Fourth period, the theorization of nationalism focused on national self-determination and the interconnection between anti-feudalism and anti-imperialism, and between nationalism and cosmopolitanism, under the influence of the national independence movement after WWI and Lenin's theory of national self-determination. Early Chinese Marxists such as Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu, as well as Chinese Nationalists such as Sun Yat-sen all contributed to it. After the Mukden Incident of 1931, the theorization of nationalism showed new changes with the stimulation of the pernicious national crisis. This was manifested in the idea of national revival which provoked intensive discussions among the intelligentsia.

Keywords:

• nationalism
• nation-building
• national self-determination
• national revival

Notes

¹ Major research works on this topic include Tang Wenquan, Juexing yu miwu: Zhongguo jindai minzu zhuyi sichao yanjiu [Awakening and Perplexing: A Study on Modern Chinese Nationalist Thought] (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1993); Tao Xu, Wan Qing minzu zhuyi sichao [The Intellectual Trend of Nationalism in the Late Qing] (Beijing: renmin chubanshe, 1995); Luo Fuhui, Zhongguo minzu zhuyi sixiang lungao [Draft Theses on Chinese Nationalist Thought] (Wuhan: Huazhong shifan daxue chubanshe, 1996); and Jin Chongji, “Xinhai geming he Zhongguo jindai minzu zhuyi” [The 1911 Revolution and Modern Chinese Nationalism], in Jindai shi yanjiu [Modern Chinese History Studies], no. 5 (2001), 1–20.

² Zhang Taiyan, “Bo Kang Youwei lun geming shu” [Refuting Kang Youwei's Opinion on Revolution], in Selected Political Treatises of Zhang Taiyan, ed. Tang Zhijun (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1977), 194.

³ Sun Yat-sen, Sun Zhongshan quanji [Completed Works of Sun Yat-sen], vol. 7 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1985), 60.

⁴ Feng Guifen “Cai xixue yi” [On Adopting Western Learning], in Cai xixue yi: Feng Guifen, Ma Jianzhong ji [On Adopting Western Learning: Selected Works of Feng Guifen and Ma Jianzhong], ed. Zheng Dahua (Shenyang: Liaoning renmin chubanshe, 1994), 82.

⁵ Ibid.

⁶ Zheng Guanying, “Yiyan: Lun gongfa” [“On International Law” in Easy Remarks] in Zheng Guanying ji [Selected Works of Zheng Guanying], vol.1 (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1982), 67.

⁷ Wang Tao, “Hua yi bian” [Articulating Chinese vs Barbarians], in Taoyuan wenlu waibian [Supplements to the Selected Works of Wang Tao] (Shenyang: Liaoning renmin chubanshe, 1994), 387.

⁸ Liang Qichao, “Guojia sixiang bianqian yitong lun” [On the Similarity and Difference in the Transformation of Ideas on State], in Yinbingshi heji [Complete Works of the Ice Drinker's Studio], vol. 1, collection 6 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1989), 20.

⁹ Ibid.

¹⁰ Ibid.

¹¹ Ibid., 22.

¹² Ibid.

¹³ Anonymous, “Minzu zhuyi zhi jiaoyu” [The Education of Nationalism], in Xinhai geming qian shinian jian shilun xuanji [Political Treatises during the Decade before the 1911 Revolution], vol. 1-A, ed. Zhang Nan and Wang Renzhi (Beijing: Sanlian shudian, 1960), 404.

¹⁴ Liang Qichao, “Lun minzhu jingzheng de dashi” [On the General Trend of National Rivalry], in Yinbingshi heji, vol. 2, collection 10 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju 1989), 35.

¹⁵ Zhang Taiyan, “Dongjing liuxuesheng huanyinghui yanshuo ci” [Keynote Speech at the Welcoming Party of Chinese Students in Tokyo], in Zhang Taiyan zhenglun xuanji [Selected Political Treatises of Zhang Taiyan], ed. Tang Zhijun, vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1977), 269. Translator's note: Dai Mingshi, Zeng Jing and Zha Siting were three eminent Han scholars, anti-Manchu nationalists and victims of early Qing literary inquisition.

¹⁶ Ibid.

¹⁷ Yuchenzi, “Lun shijie jingji jingzheng di dashi” [On the General Trend of World Economic Competition], in Xinhai geming qian shinian jian shilun xuanji, vol. 1-A, ed. Zhang Nan and Wang Renzhi, 205.

¹⁸ In Zuo Qiuming's annotation of the Annals of Spring and Autumn, there is a sentence in the record of the fourth year of Duke Cheng, “The Gazetteer which has been lost has a saying: ‘If one does not belong to our racial group, then his mind must be different.’ Though the Chu state is large, they are not our people. Are they willing to pay tribute to us?” See Zuo Qiuming, Chunqiu zhengyi zhuan [The Annals of Spring and Autumn Annotated by Zuo Qiuming] (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1990), 440.

¹⁹ This sentence is from Han Yu's essay, “When Confucius wrote the Annals of Spring and Autumn, he meant that the feudal lords should be treated as non-Chinese barbarians if they have adopted barbarian rituals; but if barbarians come to be transformed by Chinese culture, then they should be seen as Chinese.” See Han Yu, “Yuan Dao” [On the Origin of the Way], in Han Changli ji [Complete Works of Han Yu], vol. 3 (Shanghai: Shangwu yinshu guan, 1933), 62.

²⁰ Yang Du, “Jin tie zhuyi shuo” [On the Ideology of Gold and Iron], in Yang Du Ji [Selected Works of Yang Du], ed. Liu Qingbo (Changsha: Hunan renmin chubanshe, 1986), 373.

²¹ Sun Yat-sen, “Tanxiangshan xingzhonghui mengshu” [The Oath for Joining the Revive China Society in Honolulu], in Sun Zhongshan quanji, vol.1 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1981), 20.

²² Zou Rong, “Geming jun” [Revolutionary Army], in Meng huitou – Chen Tianhua Zou Rong ji [Turning Heads Back: Works of Chen Tianhua and Zou Rong] (Shen Yang: Liaoning renmin chubanshe, 1994), 199.

²³ Yu Yi, “Minzu zhuyi lun” [On Nationalism], in Xinhai geming qian shinian jian shilun xuanji, vol. 1–B, 486–7.

²⁴ Liu Yazi, “Minquan zhuyi! Minzu zhuyi!” [“Democracy-ism! Nationalism!”], in Xinhai geming qian shinian jian shilun xuanji, vol. 2-B, ed. Zhang Nan and Wang Renzhi, (Beijing: Sanlian shudian, 1963), 814.

²⁵ Liang Qichao, “Shenlin zhongu geming he zhengzhi geming zhi deshi” [A Polemics on the Gains and Losses of Racial Revolution and Political Revolution], in Xinhai geming qian shinian jian shilun xuanji, vol. 2–A, 224–226.

²⁶ Yang Du, “Jin tie zhuyi shuo”, 374.

²⁷ Liang Qichao, “Zhengzhi daji bolunzhili zhi xueshuo” [The Doctrines of the Great Political Thinker Bluntschli], in Yinbingshi heji, vol. 1, collection 6, 76.

²⁸ Ibid.

²⁹ Sun Yat-sen, “Linshi da zongtong jiuzhi xuanyan shu” [Inauguration Speech of the Provisional President], in Sun Zhongshan quanji, vol. 2, 2.

³⁰ Sun Yat-sen, “Zai Zhongguo guomindang benbu teshe zhu yue banshichu de yanshuo” [Speech Delivered at the Chinese Nationalist Party's Liaison Office in Guangdong], Sun Zhongshan quanji, vol. 5, 473.

³¹ Ibid.

³² Ibid.

³³ “Sun Wen Yuefei xuanyan” [Sun–Joffe Declaration], in Sun Zhongshan quanji, vol. 7, (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1985), 50.

³⁴ Jitao (Dai Jitao), “Zhongguo ren de ‘zuzhi nengli’” [The Organizing Ability of the Chinese], Xingqi pinglun [Weekly Review], no. 1 (June 8, 1919), 2.

³⁵ Ibid.

³⁶ Zhonggong zhongyang shuji chu, “Zhongguo gongchandang dierci quanguo dahui xuanyan” [Declaration of the Second Congress of the Chinese Communist Party], in Liuda yiqian – dang de lishi cailiao [Before the Sixth Party Congress: Historical Materials of the Party] (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1980), 7–8.

³⁷ Eric Hobsbawm, Nation and Nationalism, trans. Li Jinmei (Shanghai: Shiji chuban jituan, 2006), 121.

³⁸ Sun Yat-sen, “Zai Guangdong sheng di wu ci jiaoyu dahui shang de yanshuo”, in Sun Zhangshan quanji, vol. 5 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1985), 558.

³⁹ Ibid.

⁴⁰ Ibid.

⁴¹ Sun Yat-sen, “Sanminzhuyi: minzu zhuyi” [Three Principles of the People: Nationalism], in Sun Zhongshan quanji, vol. 9 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1986), 216–7.

⁴² Ibid., 223–6.

⁴³ Liang Qichao, “Ouzhanhou sixiang bianqian zhi dashi” [The General Trend of the Intellectual Change after the European War], in Yinbingshi heji – jiwaiwen [Compiled Works of the Ice Drinker's Studio: Previously Unpublished Essays], vol. 2 (Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 2005), 605.

⁴⁴ Sun Yat-sen, “Tanxiangshan xingzhong hui zhangcheng” [Charter of the Revive China Society in Honolulu], in Sun Zhongshan quanji, vol. 1 (Beijing: zhonghua shuju, 1981), 19.

⁴⁵ Liang Qichao, “Shaonian zhongguo shuo” [On Young China], in Yinbingshi heji, vol. 1, collection 5, 19.

⁴⁶ Wu Zhao, “Fuxing de yaodian” [Key Points of National Revival], Fuxing yuekan [Revival Monthly], vol. 2, no. 1 (September 1, 1933), 1.

⁴⁷ Zhang Junmai et al., “Women suo yao shuo de hua” [The Words that We Want to Say], Zaisheng, vol. 1, no. 1 (May 20, 1932), 1.

⁴⁸ Ibid, 2.

⁴⁹ Huang Fu, “Foreword”, Fuxing yuekan, vol. 1, no. 1 (September 1, 1932), 1.

⁵⁰ See Zheng Dahua, “Jiuyiba shibian hou feixite minzu zhuyi de xitong chuanru jiqi yingxiang” [The Systematic Introduction of Fichte's Nationalist Thought after the Mukden Incident of 1931], Jindaishi yanjiu [Modern Chinese History Studies], no. 6 (2009), 31–47.

⁵¹ Zhao Zhengping, “Duanqi zhinei zhonghua minzu fuxing zhi keneng xing” [The Possibility of the Chinese Nation's Revival in the Near Future], Dongfang zazhi [Eastern Miscellany], vol. 31, no. 18 (September 16, 1934), 92.

⁵² Wu Qichang, “Minzu fuxing de zixin li” [The Power of Confidence in the Nation's Revival], Guowen zhoubao [National News Weekly], vol. 13, no. 39 (October 5, 1936), 7.

⁵³ Liang Shuming, “Jingshen taolian yaozhi” [Key Points for Spiritual Cultivation], in Liang Shuming quanji [Complete Works of Liang Shuming], vol. 5 (Jinan: Shandong renmin chubanshe, 1992), 505–506.

⁵⁴ Zhang Junmai, “Zhonghua minzu fuxing zhi jingshen de jichu” [The Spiritual Foundation of the Revival of the Chinese Nation], Minzu fuxing zhi xueshu jichu [The Academic Foundation of National Revival], vol. 2 (Beijing: zaisheng she, 1935), 68–70.

⁵⁵ Zhao Zhengping, Zhonghua minzu fuxing wenti zhi shi de guancha [An Examination of the History of the Chinese Nation's Revival], sequence 4, Fuxing yuekan, vol. 1, no. 5 (January 1, 1933), 6.

⁵⁶ Wu Zelin, “Minzu fuxing de jige tiaojian” [Conditions for National Revival], Dongfang zazhi, vol. 31, no. 18 (September 16, 1934), 94.

⁵⁷ Anonymous, “Minzhu fuxing zhi jingshen jichu” [The Spiritual Foundation of National Revival], Dagong bao, May 15, 1934.

⁵⁸ Zheng Hongshu, “Wenyi zhi minzu fuxing de shiming” [The Mission of National Revival in Arts and Literature], Fuxing yuekan, vol. 2, no. 4 (December 16, 1933), 21.

⁵⁹ Pan Guangdan, “Minzu fuxing de yige xianjue wenti” [A Precondition of National Revival], Dongfang zazhi, vol. 31, no. 18 (September 16, 1934), 89.